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Presentation on the topic: Reign of Alexander I (Blessed)

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Personality of the Emperor. Ascension to the throne of the "Unspoken Committee". Public Administration Reforms. Projects M.M. Speransky and their fate. Domestic politics Attempts to resolve the peasant question Projects for the liberation of peasants Military settlements Forms of opposition: unrest in the army, noble secret societies, public opinion

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The multifaceted character of Alexander Romanov is based to a large extent on the depth of his early education and the difficult environment of his childhood. He grew up in the intellectual court of Catherine the Great; The Swiss Jacobin teacher Frederic Caesar La Harpe introduced him to the principles of humanity of Rousseau, the military teacher Nikolai Saltykov introduced him to the traditions of the Russian aristocracy, his father passed on to him his passion for military parades and taught him to combine spiritual love for humanity with practical concern for his neighbor.

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These opposites remained with him throughout his life and influenced his politics and - indirectly, through him - the fate of the world. Catherine II considered her son Paul incapable of taking the throne and planned to elevate Alexander to it, bypassing his father. In 1793, Alexander married the daughter of the Margrave of Baden, Louise Marie Auguste von Baden, who took the name Elizaveta Alekseevna. For some time, Alexander served in the Gatchina troops formed by his father. Here Alexander developed deafness in his left ear “from the strong roar of the guns.” Louise Maria Augusta (Elizaveta Alekseevna).

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At half past twelve on the night of March 12, 1801, Count P. A. Palen informed Alexander about the murder of his father. Within a month, Alexander: returned to the service all those previously dismissed by Paul, lifted the ban on the import of various goods and products into Russia (including books and musical notes), declared an amnesty for fugitives, restored noble elections, etc. On April 2, Alexander restored the action Granted charters to the nobility and cities, liquidated the secret chancellery.

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Even before his accession to the throne, a group of “young friends” rallied around Alexander (P. A. Stroganov, V. P. Kochubey, A. A. Chartorysky, N. N. Novosiltsov), who from 1801 began to play an extremely important role. On June 5 (17), 1801, a Russian-English convention was signed in St. Petersburg, ending the interstate crisis, and on May 10, the Russian mission in Vienna was restored. On September 29 (October 8), 1801, a peace treaty was signed with France, and a secret convention was concluded on September 29 (October 11). On September 15, 1801, Alexander's coronation took place in Moscow.

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4. Public administration reforms. January 1, 1810 (according to Speransky’s project) The Permanent Council was transformed into the State Council. It consisted of the General Assembly and four departments - laws, military, civil and spiritual affairs, state economy (later a 5th temporarily existed - for the affairs of the Kingdom of Poland). To organize the activities of the State Council, the State Chancellery and its state were created. Speransky was appointed secretary. Under the State The council established a Law Drafting Commission and a Petitions Commission.

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Chairman of the State the council was one of its members appointed by the emperor. Member of the State The council included all ministers, as well as persons from the highest dignitaries appointed by the emperor. First, bills were discussed in departments, then submitted for discussion to the General Assembly. And only after they were approved by the emperor they received the force of law. The State Council did not issue laws, but served as an advisory body in the development of laws. Its task is to centralize legislative affairs, ensure uniformity of legal norms, and avoid contradictions in laws.

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8 Sep. 1802 - the manifesto approved 8 ministries, replacing Peter's colleges (liquidated by Catherine II and restored by Paul I). Matters were now decided individually by the minister, reporting to the emperor. Each minister had a deputy (comrade minister) and an office. Ministries were divided into departments headed by directors; departments - into departments headed by department heads; departments - on tables headed by clerks. A Committee of Ministers was established to jointly discuss matters

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Since 1802, the following ministries have been created: military ground forces, maritime forces, internal forces, foreign affairs, justice, finance, public education. In 1802, a decree on the rights of the Senate was issued. It was declared the supreme body in the empire, concentrating the highest administrative, judicial and supervisory power. He was given the right to make representations regarding decrees issued if they contradicted other laws. Along with the ministries, Main Directorates are created with the same rights. Main Directorate of Communications (created back in 1809). Main Directorate of Spiritual Affairs of Foreign Denominations. The Main Directorate for the Audit of State Accounts (or State Control) The Holy Synod also underwent changes, the members of which were the highest spiritual hierarchs - metropolitans and bishops, but at the head of the Synod was a civil official with the rank of chief prosecutor. Under Alexander I, representatives of the highest clergy no longer gathered, but were summoned to meetings of the Synod to select the chief prosecutor, whose rights were significantly expanded.

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5. Transformation program M.M. Speransky and her fate At the end of 1808, Alexander I instructed Speransky to develop a plan for the state transformation of Russia. In October 1809, a project entitled “Introduction to the Code of State Laws” was presented to the Tsar. The objective of the plan is to modernize and Europeanize public administration by introducing bourgeois norms and forms: “In order to strengthen the autocracy and preserve the class system.”

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Estates according to Speransky: The nobility has civil and political rights; The “average state” has civil rights (the right to movable and immovable property, freedom of occupation and movement, to speak on one’s own behalf in court) - merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants. The “working people” do not have political and civil rights: landowner peasants, workers and domestic servants. A State Council is created under the emperor. However, the emperor retains full power: the emperor could interrupt the sessions of the State Duma and even dissolve them by calling new elections. State the Duma was considered as a representative body under the emperor. Ministers are appointed by the emperor. The composition of the Senate is appointed by the emperor.

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The project met with stubborn opposition from senators, ministers and other senior dignitaries, and Alexander I did not dare to implement it. 6. Financial reform It was planned to stop issuing new banknotes and gradually withdraw old ones; further - increase all taxes (direct and indirect). According to the estimate of 1810, all banknotes put into circulation (the first Russian paper money) were considered to be 577 million; external debt - 100 million. The revenue estimate for 1810 promised an amount of 127 million; the cost estimate required 193 million. A deficit was expected - 66 million appropriations. 2 Feb 1810 and 11 Feb. 1812 - increase in all taxes.

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6. Reform in education. In 1803, a new regulation was issued on the structure of educational institutions, which introduced new principles into the education system: the absence of class in educational institutions; free education at lower levels; continuity of educational programs. Levels of the education system: University Gymnasium in the provincial town District schools One-class parish school.

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The entire education system was in charge of the Main Directorate of Schools. 6 educational districts headed by trustees were formed. Above the trustees were academic councils at universities. Five universities were founded: in 1802 - Dorpat, in 1803 - Vilna, in 1804 - Kharkov and Kazan. Opened in 1804, the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute was transformed into a university in 1819. 1804 - The university charter provided universities with significant autonomy: election of the rector and professors, their own court, non-interference of the higher administration in the affairs of universities, the right of universities to appoint teachers in the gymnasiums and colleges of their educational district.

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1804 - the first censorship charter. At universities, censorship committees were created from professors and masters, subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. Privileged secondary educational institutions - lyceums - were founded: in 1811 - Tsarskoye Selo, in 1817 - Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa, in 1820 - Nezhinsky. In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education. In 1820, instructions were sent to universities on the “correct” organization of the educational process. In 1821, verification of the implementation of the instructions of 1820 began, which was carried out very harshly and biasedly, which was especially observed at Kazan and St. Petersburg universities.

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7. Attempts to resolve the peasant issue Upon ascending the throne, Alexander I solemnly declared that from now on the distribution of state-owned peasants would cease. 12 Dec. 1801 - decree on the right to purchase land by merchants, petty bourgeois, state and appanage peasants outside the cities (landed peasants received this right only in 1848) February 20 1803 - decree on “free cultivators”. 1804 - 1805 - the first stage of reform in the Baltic states. March 10, 1809 - the decree abolished the right of landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for minor offenses. The rule was confirmed: if a peasant once received freedom, then he could not be assigned to the landowner again. Those who came from captivity or from abroad, as well as those taken through conscription, received freedom. The landowner was ordered to feed the peasants in times of famine.

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With the permission of the landowner, peasants could trade. take bills, engage in contracts. In 1810, the practice of organizing military settlements began. For 1810 - 1811 Due to the difficult financial situation of the treasury, over 10,000 state-owned peasants were sold to private individuals. In November 1815, Alexander I granted a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland. In November 1815, Russian peasants were forbidden to “seek freedom.” In 1816, new rules for organizing military settlements were introduced. In 1816 - 1819 Peasant reform in the Baltic states is being completed. In 1818, Alexander I instructed the Minister of Justice Novosiltsev to prepare a State Charter for Russia. In 1818, several royal dignitaries received secret orders to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom. In 1822, the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia was renewed. In 1823, a decree confirmed the right of hereditary nobles to own serfs.

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8. Projects for the liberation of peasants In 1818, Alexander I instructed Admiral Mordvinov, Count Arakcheev and Kankrin to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom. Mordvinov's project: peasants receive personal freedom, but without land, which remains entirely with the landowners. the amount of the ransom depends on the age of the peasant: 9-10 years - 100 rubles; 30-40 years old - 2 thousand; 40-50 years - ... Arakcheev’s project: to carry out the liberation of the peasants under the leadership of the government - to gradually redeem the peasants with land (two dessiatines per capita) by agreement with the landowners at the prices of the given area. Kankrin's project: the slow purchase of peasant land from landowners in a sufficient amount; the program was designed for 60 years, i.e. before 1880

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9. Military settlements] In the end. 1815 Alexander I begins to discuss the project of military settlements, the first experience of implementation of which was carried out in 1810-1812. on the reserve battalion of the Yelets Musketeer Regiment, located in the Bobylevsky eldership of the Klimovsky district of the Mogilev province. The development of a plan for creating settlements was entrusted to Arakcheev. The goals of the project: to create a new military-agricultural class, which on its own could support and recruit a standing army without burdening the country’s budget; the size of the army would be maintained at wartime levels. free the country's population from constant conscription - maintain the army. cover the western border area. In Aug. In 1816, preparations began for the transfer of troops and residents to the category of military villagers. In 1817, settlements were introduced in the Novgorod, Kherson and Sloboda-Ukrainian provinces. Until the end of the reign of Alexander I, the number of districts of military settlements continued to grow, gradually surrounding the border of the empire from the Baltic to the Black Sea. By 1825, there were 169,828 regular army soldiers and 374,000 state peasants and Cossacks in military settlements. In 1857, military settlements were abolished. They already numbered 800 thousand people.

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10. Forms of opposition: unrest in the army, noble secret societies, public opinion The introduction of military settlements met stubborn resistance from peasants and Cossacks, who were converted into military villagers. In the summer of 1819, an uprising broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov. In 1820, peasants became agitated on the Don: 2,556 villages were in revolt. Oct 16 1820 The head company of the Semenovsky regiment submitted a request to cancel the strict orders introduced and change the regimental commander. The company was deceived into the arena, arrested and sent to the casemates of the Peter and Paul Fortress. The entire regiment stood up for her. The regiment was surrounded by the military garrison of the capital, and then sent in full force to the Peter and Paul Fortress. The first battalion was put on trial by a military court, which sentenced the instigators to be driven through the ranks, and the remaining soldiers to exile to distant garrisons. Other battalions were distributed among various army regiments. Under the influence of the Semenovsky regiment, fermentation began in other parts of the capital's garrison: proclamations were distributed. In 1821, secret police were introduced into the army. In 1822, a decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges.

Introduction

The middle - second half of the 19th century were for Russia a time of radical changes in many aspects of the life of the state. This was the period of greatest activity of educated society, when it had the opportunity to discuss economic, social and even political issues, to leave the previous narrow circles or closed literary salons. This was an era of reforms from above and natural changes within society and government itself. The search for ways of further development turned out to be very difficult, contradictory, with changing priorities, returns and constant rethinking of the transformations that have taken place and their results. Now our society is also on the path to finding new ways of development, so the topic of this work is relevant.

Government solution to the peasant question in the first half of the 19th century

In the first half of the 19th century. Russia was still an agricultural country. The bulk of the population were peasants, most of whom belonged to landowners and were in serfdom. In resolving the peasant question, Russia lagged significantly behind other European states. The personal dependence of the peasants on the landowners and, consequently, their disinterest in the results of labor made agriculture less efficient. The urgent need to change the existing situation became obvious already in the second half of the 18th century. At the beginning of the 19th century. the government tried to cover up the most condemned forms of serfdom by society. Thus, it was forbidden to print advertisements in newspapers about the sale of serfs, and in 1803 a decree was issued on free cultivators.

Under Nicholas I, the peasant question became even more acute. Leading public figures demanded its immediate solution. The peasants expressed their dissatisfaction with the unrest (as Kornilov notes, during the reign of Nicholas I there were at least 556 peasant unrest, often in entire villages and volosts1), most of which had to be pacified by more than simple police means, that is, by the departure of the police authorities and flogging peasants, but by calling military commands, often through bloodshed. This shows that it was really impossible to look at this situation calmly, even from the point of view of state security. Therefore, the peasant issue occupied far from the last place in the reign of Nicholas I. To search for means to improve the situation of the peasants, Secret Committees were convened several times, the members of which were senior government officials chosen by the emperor, bound by a subscription not to disclose information about their activities. The Emperor raised before the Secret Committees issues related to both the development of general principles for the reconstruction of the village and the creation of specific legislative acts. Committees arose at the discretion of the emperor, and the activities of most of them were fruitless.

You should pay attention to the attitude of Nicholas I himself to this problem. The emperor understood the peasant question, first of all, as the question of the abolition of serfdom and the emancipation of the peasants. At the same time, experience has shown that the emancipation of peasants not accompanied by the allocation of land to them significantly worsens their economic situation. The peasants could be freed only if they were allocated part of the lands belonging to the landowner. However, Nicholas I was convinced that the land was the private property of the nobles by law, and the emperor could not break the law, because he considered this incompatible with the dignity of the monarch.

As a result, the main instrument for mitigating social tension under Nicholas I was the petty regulation of relations between landowners and serfs. Under him, more decrees were issued to protect peasants from landowners than under his predecessors: a total of 108 from 1826 to 1855. Thus, during his reign, a system of legislative prohibitions was built, designed to show government concern for the peasants and limit the arbitrariness of the landowners. For example, it was forbidden to send serfs to factories, and the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia was limited. In 1841, a law was passed prohibiting the sale of peasants individually and without land. In 1843, landless nobles were deprived of the right to buy peasants. In 1842, a decree “On Obligated Peasants” was issued, continuing the line outlined by the decree of 1803,1 but the new decree retained its advisory nature. He allowed the landowners to set the peasants free by providing them with an allotment of land, but not for ownership, but for use. For this allotment, the peasants were obliged to fulfill their previous duties, that is, to work in corvée or pay quitrent. The government also tried to intervene in the relationship between landowners and peasants. In the western provinces, inventories were introduced that regulated the size of peasant plots and duties, and methods of possible punishment of peasants.

In general, the government's policy in the field of the peasant issue under Nicholas I did not bring significant results.

Peasant reform of 1861

The decrees and laws on peasants, issued in the first half of the 19th century, were not binding on landowners and found extremely limited application. In order for the government to seriously begin to abolish serfdom, such a major shock as the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856 was necessary.

The Crimean War contributed to the deepening of the existing crisis, giving it a comprehensive character, and showed that it was serfdom that was the main reason for the economic and military-technical backwardness of the country. Alexander II, who ascended the throne in 1855, faced acute economic and political tasks: to resolve acute social problems, overcome a severe economic crisis and maintain Russia's position as one of the leading powers in the world. Foreigners also stated that serfdom in Russia needs to be eradicated. Thus, in June 1857, the Prussian economist August Haxthausen submitted a note to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia A. M. Gorchakov in which he wrote: “The issue of the liberation of the peasants, being a special issue for Russia, is at the same time political, and, moreover, the most important not only in relation to Russia, but also for the whole of Europe.”1. And further: “I say this to remind you that Russia cannot stop halfway, that it is impossible to leave the most important issues of national existence to their own development, but that the government is obliged to be the first to take a thoughtful and active part in them, so that events, ahead of it, do not take over reins and did not snatch from him concessions that would lead to his downfall.”2 We see that the danger of the peasant (“social”) revolution was so great that it was talked about not only in Russia, but also beyond its borders. That is why it was impossible to delay the reform of the liberation of peasants.

For the first time, Alexander II officially announced the need to abolish serfdom in a short speech he delivered on March 30, 1856 to representatives of the Moscow nobility. In this speech, the emperor, having mentioned his reluctance to give freedom to the peasants now, was forced to declare the need, in principle, to begin preparing a reform for their liberation, noting that it was better to abolish serfdom “from above.”

However, throughout 1856, practically nothing was done in this direction, except that attempts were made to find out the attitude of the nobility to the upcoming reform and to achieve the initiative of the latter in the planned matter. At the end of 1856, the emperor wrote to Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, who announced her intention to free the peasants on her Karlovka estate in Poltava province: “I am waiting for the well-meaning owners of populated estates to express themselves to what extent they believe it is possible to improve the lot of their peasants.”3 . It is worth noting that the vast majority of the Russian nobility were serf-minded and opposed any serious reforms. The emperor was supported by the liberal part of the landowners, whose economy was more closely involved in market relations. In 1855 - 1857 These people came up with various projects for the abolition of serfdom, which provided for different conditions for the liberation of the peasants, which was determined to a large extent by the difference in the interests of the landowners themselves, depending on the specific local conditions of running the landowner's economy. Despite all the differences, these projects were united by the desire to preserve landownership, the power of landowners, and the autocratic political order, but taking into account new socio-economic processes. The main goal of this kind of project was to prevent a new “Pugachevism” in the country: the danger of a peasant uprising was seen as one of the important arguments for carrying out the peasant liberation reform.

The development of the practical foundations of peasant reform was first entrusted to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. In the summer of 1856, A. I. Levshin presented a “Note” outlining the principles of this reform: the landowner retained ownership of all land on the estate, including peasant land; upon liberation, the land was provided to the peasants, for which they had to bear duties regulated by law in the form of corvee or quitrent for the benefit of the landowner. In other words, according to the reform, peasants were supposed to receive personal freedom and land for use (and not ownership).

On January 3, 1857, on the orders of Alexander II, the Secret Committee2 was formed, which was entrusted with the development of the main project for the abolition of serfdom. However, the very idea of ​​abolishing serfdom met with strong resistance from the feudal landowners, and the committee, expressing the interests of the latter, was in no hurry to begin developing the necessary document. It was unprofitable for members of the Secret Committee to give up their privileges and lose such free labor as serfs. The emperor himself was forced to approach this issue differently. He and his closest associates saw that a revolutionary situation was brewing in the country, which could lead to the abolition of serfdom from below on conditions that were clearly unfavorable for the landowners. At the same time, as before, he sought to get the landowners to take the initiative in preparing the reform. The first to express their consent were the landowners of three provinces - Vilna, Kovno and Grodno. On November 20, 1857, a rescript was issued to the Governor-General of these provinces, V.I. Nazimov, on the establishment of three provincial committees and one general commission from among local landowners to prepare local projects for peasant reform. The rescript to Nazimov, and soon the subsequent circular of the Minister of Internal Affairs, was based on the principles set out earlier in the “Note” of A.I. Levshin and approved by Alexander II. Similar rescripts were given to the other governors during 1858.

On January 16, 1858, the Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. It consisted of 12 senior royal dignitaries chaired by Alexander II. On March 4, 1859, two editorial commissions arose under the committee, which were entrusted with the responsibility of collecting and systematizing the opinions of provincial committees. One of the commissions was supposed to prepare a draft “General Regulations on Peasants...”, the other - “local regulations” on their land structure in relation to large regions, taking into account their characteristics. In fact, both commissions merged into one in their activities, retaining the plural name - Editorial commissions.

This body, formally listed under the Main Committee, actually enjoyed independence, since it reported directly to the emperor. The editorial commissions were divided into financial, legal and business departments. Ya. I. Rostovtsev1 was appointed chairman of the commissions, and after his death in 1860, Minister of Justice V. N. Panin2 was appointed.

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The abundance of various documentation received by the Main Committee necessitated the creation in March 1858 of the Central Statistical Committee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Zemstvo Department, designed to analyze, systematize and discuss all matters related to the preparation of the reform. Initially, the already mentioned Levshin was appointed chairman of the department, later - N.A. Milyutin, one of the figures who later played a significant role in the Editorial Commissions.

Provincial committees took a generally conservative position, determined by the personal interests of the local nobility: proposals were made to introduce an indefinite state of temporary obligation for the peasants, and wishes to return the peasant plots to the landowners in case of termination of this state. The editorial commissions did not meet these claims of the nobility, although there was no unity in the commissions themselves: the struggle did not subside on issues of the specific size of allotments and duties, and the functions of peasant self-government. In addition, the deputies of the Editorial Commissions were themselves landowners, and this also led to contradictions. Rostovtsev wrote to Alexander II on October 23, 1859: “The main contradiction is that the commissions and some deputies have different points of departure: the Commissions have state necessity and state law; They have civil rights and private interests.<…>Looking from the point of view of civil law, the entire reform conceived from beginning to end is unjust, because it is a violation of private property rights; but as a state necessity and on the basis of state law, this reform is legal, sacred and necessary.

A huge number of enemies of the reform, not realizing this urgent need, accuse, both verbally and in writing, the Editorial Commissions of wanting to rob the nobles, and others even of wanting to create anarchy, calling some of the members of the Commissions Reds.”1 Further, Rostovtsev reports: “Desiring to rob the nobles would be a dishonest and pointless thought, especially since 8/10 of the members of the Commissions are landowners themselves, and some of them are very rich.”2

In August 1859, the draft “Regulations on Peasants” was generally prepared by the Editorial Commissions. At the end of August 1860, 36 deputies from 21 provincial committees were summoned to St. Petersburg, in February 1860 - 45 deputies from the remaining 25 committees to discuss the prepared project. At the same time, the activity of the summoned deputies was practically prohibited: they were forbidden to submit collective petitions, representations, and even communicate with each other, which was monitored by the police. However, the summoned deputies sharply criticized the activities of the Editorial Commissions, considering the size of peasant land plots to be overestimated and the duties to be underestimated. These opinions were taken into account when preparing the final draft of the reform.

At the same time, when preparing the reform, it was impossible not to take into account the opinions of the peasants themselves, who expressed their impatience with the protracted solution to the peasant question. The so-called “temperance movement”3 in 1859 made a great impression on the government. At one of the meetings of the Editorial Commissions, Rostovtsev stated: “If we had riots over a bottle of polugar, then what will happen if we cut off the tithe?”1.

On October 10, 1860, the Editorial Commissions completed their work, and the draft “Regulations” was submitted to the Main Committee on Peasant Affairs, where it was discussed until January 14, 1861. Here the project underwent new changes in favor of the landowners (this was expressed in a decrease in the norms of peasant plots for some areas and an increase in quitrent in industrial areas). On January 28, 1861, the project was submitted to the State Council for consideration. Opening the meeting of the State Council, the emperor pointed out the need to complete the reform as quickly as possible. Finally, on February 19, the “Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom” were signed by Alexander II and received the force of law. At the same time, the emperor signed the Manifesto for the Liberation of the Peasants2, and the publication of the signed documents took place from March 5 (in Moscow and St. Petersburg) to April 2 (in the field).

According to the Manifesto, the peasants received personal freedom, which they had been seeking for a long period of time. At the same time, the Manifesto indicated that “the nobility voluntarily renounced the right to personality of serfs”3. Landowners lost the right to interfere in the personal lives of peasants; they could not resettle them to other areas, much less sell them to others with or without land. The landowner retained the rights to supervise the behavior of peasants who had emerged from serfdom, “with the right of trial and reprisal, until the formation of volosts and the opening of volost courts”4.

The property rights of peasants have also changed, primarily their right to land: “Lands, houses and generally real estate acquired by peasants in the past in the name of their landowners are finally assigned to the peasants or their heirs”1, says the “Regulations...”, but only “upon approval of these properties by the landowners themselves or by the decision of a global institution, on the basis of special rules attached to this”2.

For two years, essentially the previous serfdom was preserved: until the expiration of this period, peasants and nobles were ordered to “remain in the same obedience to the landowners and unquestioningly fulfill their previous duties”3. During this time, the transition of the peasants to a temporarily obliged state was supposed to take place.

The allocation of land was carried out in accordance with local regulations, in which the highest and lowest limits for the amount of land provided to peasants were determined for different regions of the country (chernozem, steppe, non-chernozem). These provisions were specified in charters, which indicated what land the peasants received.

To regulate the relationship between landowners and peasants, the Senate, on the recommendation of the governors, appointed peace mediators from among the noble landowners. Statutory charters were drawn up by landowners or peace intermediaries. After this, their contents were necessarily brought to the attention of the corresponding peasant gathering or gatherings, if the charter concerned several villages. Amendments could then be made in accordance with the comments and suggestions of the peasants, and the mediator would resolve controversial issues. The charter came into force after the peasants were familiar with its text and when the peace mediator recognized its contents as complying with the requirements of the law. The consent of the peasants to the conditions provided for in the charter was not necessary. True, it was more profitable for the landowner to achieve such consent, because in this case, upon the subsequent purchase of the land by the peasants, he received the so-called additional payment.

In the country as a whole, peasants received less land than they had before. The segments in the black earth regions turned out to be especially significant. The peasants were not only disadvantaged in the size of their land; they, as a rule, received plots that were inconvenient for cultivation, since the best land remained with the landowners.

The temporarily obligated peasant did not receive the land as ownership, but only for use. For use, he had to pay with duties - corvée or quitrent, which differed little from his previous serf duties.

The next stage in the liberation of the peasants was their transition to the state of owners. To do this, the peasant had to buy out the estate and field lands. Moreover, the redemption price significantly exceeded the actual value of the land. Consequently, the peasants paid not only for the land, but also for their personal liberation.

In order to ensure the reality of the land purchase, the government organized the so-called buyout operation. It paid the ransom amount for the peasants, thus providing them with a loan. This loan was to be repaid in installments over 49 years with 6% interest paid annually on the loan.

After the conclusion of the redemption transaction, the peasant was called the owner. However, his ownership of the land was subject to various restrictions. The peasant became the full owner only after paying all redemption payments.

Initially, the period of stay in a temporary state was not established, so many peasants delayed the transition to redemption. By 1881, approximately 15% of such peasants remained. Then a law was passed on the mandatory transition to buyout within two years. During this period, redemption transactions had to be concluded or the right to land plots would be lost. In 1883, the category of temporarily obliged peasants disappeared. Some of them executed redemption transactions, some lost their land.

In 1863 and 1866, the reform was extended to appanage and state peasants. Appanage peasants received land on more favorable terms than landowners. The state peasants retained all the land they used before the reform.

The peasants, who perceived the land as “God’s property,” which, according to “truth,” should be distributed equally only among those working on it, reacted negatively to the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom, calling it a “false charter.” Rumors spread that the landowners had hidden the “real will.” As a result, riots broke out in a number of places, and military teams were sent to suppress them. In total, more than two thousand performances were recorded.

List of sources and literature used

A note by the Prussian economist August Haxthausen on the need to abolish serfdom in Russia, submitted in June 1857 to the Minister of Foreign Affairs A. M. Gorchakov.//The End of Serfdom in Russia (documents, letters, memoirs, articles)/Compiled, generally ed. , up Art. and comment. V. A. Fedorova. – M.; Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. – P. 92.

From a note by a member of the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, “Notes on the procedure for the liberation of peasants.”//The end of serfdom in Russia (documents, letters, memoirs, articles)/Compiled, general ed., interst. Art. and comment. V. A. Fedorova. M.; Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. – P. 165.

Manifesto of February 19, 1861 on the liberation of landowner peasants from serfdom.//The end of serfdom in Russia (documents, letters, memoirs, articles)/Compiled, general ed., interst. Art. and comment. V. A. Fedorova. M.; Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. – P. 211 – 216.

General situation about peasants who emerged from serfdom.//The end of serfdom in Russia (documents, letters, memoirs, articles)/Compiled, general ed., insert. Art. and comment. V. A. Fedorova. – M.; Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. – P. 216 – 229.

Letter from the Chairman of the Editorial Commissions, Ya. I. Rostovtsev, to Alexander II, presenting an overview of the various opinions circulating in society at that time about the methods of liberating the peasants. October 23, 1859// The end of serfdom in Russia (documents, letters, memoirs, articles)/Compiled, general ed., interst. Art. and comment. V. A. Fedorova. – M.; Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. – P. 166 – 170.

Continuation
--PAGE_BREAK--

The program for the abolition of serfdom, adopted on December 4, 1858 by the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs.//The end of serfdom in Russia (documents, letters, memoirs, articles)/Compiled, general ed., insert. Art. and comment. V. A. Fedorova. – M.; Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994. – P. 165 – 166.

Dementiev A. G. Essays on the history of Russian journalism. 1840 – 1850 – M. – L.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1951.

Zayonchkovsky P. A. Abolition of serfdom in Russia [Text]: scientific publication / P. A. Zayonchkovsky. - 3rd ed., revised and supplemented. - M.: Education, 1968. - 368 pp.: table; 1 sheet of map.

Zakharova L. G. Autocracy and the abolition of serfdom in Russia 1856 - 1861. - M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1984. – 256 p.

Kornilov A. A. Course of the history of Russia in the 19th century / Kornilov A. A.; Entry Art. Levandovsky A. A. - M.: Astrel Publishing House LLC: AST Publishing House LLC, 2004.

Tsimbaev N.I. History of Russia in the 19th century. – M.: Philol. Slovo Island; EKSMO Publishing House, 2004.

Sections: History and social studies

“...Serfdom for peasants is abolished forever” (Alexander II)

(Lesson-presentation on the topic “Peasant reform of 1861”. 8th grade)

Goals and objectives of the lesson:

• Introduce students to the personality of Alexander II.
• To form ideas about the prerequisites and reasons for the abolition of serfdom.
• By analyzing the main provisions of the reform, identify its progressive and feudal features.
• To promote the development of students’ information culture and introduce them to the capabilities of PCs.
• To promote respect for Russian history.

Lesson equipment:

• Computer and projector.
• CD – “Encyclopedia of Russian History 1862–1917.” ”

Literature

1. Textbook by A.A. Danilova, L.G. Kosulina “History of the state and peoples of Russia in the 19th century”, M., 2002.
2. Lesson developments for the textbook “History of the State and Peoples of Russia in the 19th Century”, M., 2001.
3. Kornilov A.A. Course on the history of Russia in the 19th century. M., 1993.
4. Klyuchevsky V.O. Collected works. Volume V. M, 1989.
5. Chulkov G.I. Emperors: psychological portraits. M., 1991.
6. The lesson is based on a presentation outline created in PowerPoint.

During the presentation lesson, new material is presented in the form of a series of slides with text, tables and illustrations that make it possible to revive the teacher’s story and organize a discussion of the proposed questions.

The entire presentation consists of 18 slides. As the lesson progresses, the necessary material is gradually displayed on the screen, and the main issues of this topic are discussed.

The first slide of the presentation is the basic outline of the lesson.

During the classes

1. At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher introduces students to the topic of the lesson, its goals and objectives.

2. The main part of the lesson.

Introducing students to the personality of Alexander II.

Alexander II

Teacher: On February 18, 1855, under very mysterious circumstances, in the midst of the Crimean War, Emperor Nicholas I dies. There is a version that it was the suicide of a man who realized that the country was on the brink of disaster, and with his death opened the way for a new generation of rulers. “I hand over my team to you, but, unfortunately, not in the order I wanted. I leave you a lot of work and worries,” said Nicholas I, dying.

Nicholas I

A slide depicting Alexander II, his wife Maria Alexandrovna and his father Nicholas I is being examined.

Students answer the question: What problems did his father leave for Alexander II?

Teacher: Alexander Nikolaevich was born on April 17, 1818 and received a brilliant upbringing as the future emperor. Poet V.A. Zhukovsky was the crown prince's main mentor and tried to instill in him liberal views on society.

V.A. Zhukovsky

MM. Speransky taught him law.

MM. Speransky

E.F. Kankrin - economics.

E.F. Kankrin

We examine slides depicting the teachers of Alexander II - V.A. Zhukovsky, M.M. Speransky, E.F. Kankrina.

While traveling abroad, Alexander II met his wife, and, having visited Siberia, he asked his father to show mercy to the Decembrists.

Wife of Alexander II

A slide with a picture of Alexander II is being examined.

Students answer the questions: How did Alexander II's upbringing influence his character? How could the personal qualities of the king affect the course of historical events?

Teacher: The question of the abolition of serfdom has long worried Russian society. Remember when and which ruler tried to resolve this issue?

In joint work, the teacher and students compile a chronology of the prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom.

The slide “Prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom” is considered as the chronology is compiled.

Teacher: The problem of the abolition of serfdom was constantly discussed in Russian society. First of all, it had a moral, human side.

Students answer the questions: What was the attitude in Russian society towards serfdom? Remember which of the Russian writers exposed the horrors of serfdom? What secret societies and organizations advocated the abolition of serfdom?

The slide “Attitude towards serfdom in the Russian press” is considered.

Students discuss quotes from periodicals of those years: K.D. Kavelin “Notes on the liberation of the peasants”, A.I. Herzen “Polar Star” magazine, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev “Bell”.

Teacher together with his students he comes to the conclusion: In the middle of the 19th century in Russia, all the prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were in place, however, Alexander II was forced to make a decision to abolish it under the influence of not so much internal as external circumstances.

Students fill out the table “Reasons for the abolition of serfdom.”

After filling out the table, the work is checked against a pre-compiled slide.

Preparations for the abolition of serfdom.

Alexander II

Teacher: On March 30, 1854, Alexander II gave a speech to the Moscow nobility, where he spoke for the first time about the need to abolish serfdom: “... it is better if this happens from above than to wait for it to happen from below.”

The slides “Preparation for the abolition of serfdom” are considered.

01/3/1857 - formation of the Secret Committee “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.” October 1857 - Vilna Governor-General V.N. Nazimov, on behalf of the nobles, asks for permission to discuss the issue of freeing the peasants without giving them land

11/20/1857 - Alexander II issues a rescript on the establishment of provincial committees from among the nobles to discuss the conditions for the liberation of peasants. February 1858 - The Secret Committee was renamed the Main Committee for Peasant Affairs. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich was appointed chairman. March 1859 - The Editorial Commission was established. General Ya.I. Rostovtsev was appointed chairman. The main task: to consider all materials received from the provinces and draw up on their basis a general draft law on the liberation of peasants

Students answer the questions: Why do you think Alexander II wanted the initiative to abolish serfdom to come from the nobles? What role did he assign to himself in these reforms?

Teacher sets a problematic task for the students: immediately after the emperor’s speech to the nobility, Minister of Internal Affairs S.S. Lanskoy instructed his assistant A.I. Levshin to collect all the projects, notes, opinions on the peasant issue available in the previous reign. Having studied them, the minister came to the conclusion that he would have to choose from three possible options for the liberation of the peasants. What were these options?

The slide “Options for the liberation of peasants presented by the Editorial Commission” is considered.

Students answer the question: What option do you think Alexander II chose and why?

The slide “Completion of work on the peasant reform project” is considered.

The main provisions of the peasant reform.

Teacher: On February 19, 1861, Alexander II signed the manifesto “On granting peasant people the rights of free rural inhabitants and on the organization of their life.” The document stated: “Serfdom for peasants settled on landowners’ estates and for serfs is abolished forever.”

Students begin work with the main provisions of the manifesto:

The slides “Main Provisions of the Manifesto” are reviewed.

Clause 2 – Personal release procedure. Peasants: personally free; endowed with general civil and property rights. BUT! preserved: class division; tax from the peasants; recruitment kits; dependence on the community.

Clause 6 – Procedure for allocating land. Landownership was preserved. The peasants were allocated land, but in a limited amount and for a ransom on special terms. The redemption rate ranged from 3 to 12 dessiatinas. For the land, free peasants personally had to serve corvee and quitrent until it was fully redeemed

The peasants who entered into an agreement to buy out the land (9 years) were called temporarily obliged. The size of the allotment, quitrent (corvee labor) was determined by the Charter. The term of its signing is 2 years. Redemption operation: The peasant pays 25% of the value of the land to the landowner; The state reimburses the landowner 75% of the cost of the land. For 49 years, the state issues a loan to the peasant with an interest rate of 6% per annum on the amount of the debt. After this, you cannot avoid the buyout operation!

Clause 17 – Procedure for managing a peasant community. The state settled payments for the land with the peasant community. Control over this lay with the world mediators.

Students answer the questions: What kind of sentiments do you think the manifesto aroused among the people? How did the peasants react to the news of the abolition of serfdom? Did the Russian peasant become the owner of his land thanks to the manifesto?

Teacher: In April 1861, in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province, troops brutally suppressed protests by peasants demanding “full freedom” and immediate provision of land. At the end of 1861, society became disillusioned with the inconsistency of reforms.

Students answer the questions:

“The great chain has broken,
Broke up and hit
One end - according to the master,
For others, it’s a man’s business.”

1. How do you understand these lines by N.A. Nekrasov?
2. How does the author evaluate the events of the abolition of serfdom?
3. How do you assess these events? (the teacher should try to lead students not only to historical, but also to touch on moral assessments)
4. The meaning of the abolition of serfdom.

The slide “The significance of the abolition of serfdom” is considered.

3. The final part of the lesson.

Students receive the task: answer the questions and fill out the table.

1. What are the progressive features of the reform?
2. What “fortress features” did she retain?

Progressive features of the reform

Preservation of serf remnants

4. Homework.

Textbook paragraph 17, task No. 2 (oral), learn new concepts.

Creative task: write a “letter” on behalf of the liberated peasant or the landowner who set the peasants free, addressed to Emperor Alexander II.

Lesson plan: 1. The personality of Alexander I 2. The rise to power of Alexander I 3. “The Secret Committee” 4. The beginning of the reforms of Alexander I

Years of Catherine's reign? a) 1762 -1796 (y) b) 1772 -1796 (c) Years of the reign of Paul I? a) 1796 - 1800 (l) b) 1796 -1801 (j) Why did Paul I hate his mother? a) wanted her grandson to the throne (a) b) betrayed him (a) What was the power of the emperor in 1801? A) Limited (c) b) unlimited (h)

Decree on succession to the throne (April 5, 1797) On the day of his coronation, Paul. I approved a new law on succession to the throne, which established a strict order of succession to the throne according to seniority in the male line. He abolished the procedure for transferring the throne at the arbitrary request of the autocrat, introduced in 1722 by Peter. I. Women could gain the right to the throne only if male offspring were suppressed.

Alexander I Pavlovich (1801 -1825) Immediately after the birth of Alexander, his grandmother, Empress Catherine II, took her parents, who intended to raise her grandson to be an ideal sovereign. Shchukin S. S. Portrait of Alexander I.

Catherine II (1762 -1796) instilled in her grandson the ideas of the Enlightenment and liberalism. She wanted to make her grandson, not her son Paul, emperor. F. S. Rokotov. Portrait of Catherine II,

Paul I (1796 -1801) Paul I conveyed to Alexander I his passion for military affairs. He taught his son to combine spiritual love for humanity with practical concern for his neighbor. V. L. Borovikovsky Portrait of Paul I.

Alexander loved his father and grandmother Catherine II very much, but he was constantly torn between them, trying to please them. As a result, the young heir developed negative character traits: secrecy and hypocrisy. The Swiss Frederic Laharpe was invited to be the teacher recommended by the philosopher Denis Diderot. I. Krylov wrote the fable “Raising a Lion” about the upbringing of the young heir.

“And he says to him like this: “Dear son, for me you are the only heir; I’m already looking into the coffin, and you’re just entering the light; So I will willingly hand over the kingdom to you. Tell us now, in front of everyone, just to us, What have you learned, what do you know, and how do you hope to make your people happy? “Dad,” the son answered, “I know something that no one here knows: And, from Eagle to Quail, which bird has more water, which one lives on what, which eggs lays, and I will count the bird’s needs down to the last needle.” .

Here is my certificate from the teachers: It’s not for nothing that the birds say that I grab stars from the sky; When you intend to hand over the reign to me, I will immediately begin to teach the animals how to build nests.” Then the king and the whole animal world gasped; The Council hung their heads, And the old Leo realized too late that the Lion Cub was learning trifles and he was not saying good things; That there is no great benefit for him to know the life of birds, Whom nature has appointed to own animals; And what is the most important science for kings: To know the properties of their people and the benefits of their land.”

What did F. Laharpe teach Alexander I? La Harpe gave his heir a European education and instilled liberal ideas. Liberalism is a movement that unites supporters of the parliamentary system, civil liberties (choice of faith, freedom of speech, assembly, association, etc.) and freedom of enterprise.

What did F. Laharpe teach Alexander I? Ideas of liberalism instilled in Alexander: negative attitude towards serfdom; introduction of the constitution; governance based on fair laws; providing the population with civil liberties and rights.

Palace coup on March 11, 1801 Contemporaries explained the regicide on March 11, 1801 by the internal policy of Paul I: repressions against the officer corps, political instability in the country, weakening guarantees of noble freedoms and privileges, severance of diplomatic relations with England, and finally, the inability of the monarch to rule the empire.

The memoirs of contemporaries are full of evidence of resignations, arrests, executions, deprivation of noble dignity, and finally, exile, including to Siberia. About 700 nobles were imprisoned, about 300 nobles were sent to hard labor and into exile. The first “conspiracy” against Paul dates back to 1797-1799, and then the heir, Grand Duke Alexander, was already involved in them.

In 1800, a conspiracy began to be woven, which ultimately cost the emperor his life. The main role in it was played by Count Nikita Petrovich Panin, Admiral Osip Mikhailovich de Ribas and Count Pyotr Alekseevich von der Palen. Count Nikita Panin is considered the ideological inspirer of the conspiracy.

Alexander demanded from Palen a preliminary oath that there would be no attempt on his father’s life. “I gave him my word: it was necessary to calm the scrupulosity of my future sovereign, and I encouraged his intentions, although I was convinced that this word would not be fulfilled. I knew very well that it was necessary to complete the revolution or not start it at all, and that if Paul’s life was not terminated, the doors of his prison would soon open and a terrible reaction would occur.”

The most intriguing fragment in the design of the castle facade is the inscription above the main entrance: “To your house befits the holiness of the Lord for the length of days.” This is a biblical saying, a quote from Psalm 92, magnifying the deeds of the Lord. Initially, the inscription was intended for St. Isaac's Cathedral, but by order of Paul I it was transferred to the castle. Associated with this saying is the legend of a certain holy fool, who, on the eve of 1801, prophesied to Pavel Petrovich as many years of life as there were letters in this text. It turned out 47...

“The fate of the Almighty was pleased to end the life of our dear parent, Sovereign Emperor Pavel Petrovich, who died suddenly of an apoplexy on the night of the 11th to 12th of this month. We, having accepted the hereditary Imperial All-Russian throne, will also accept the responsibility to govern the people entrusted to us by God according to the laws and according to the heart of our late august grandmother, the Empress Catherine the Great, whose memory will forever be dear to us and the entire fatherland.” (Manifesto March 12, 1801)

Assignment for work in a notebook A note is the smallest information genre in journalism. The note is intended for prompt reporting of news. Novelty and brevity, reliability and a high level of efficiency are the characteristic features of this information genre.

WHAT happened? WHERE did it happen? WHEN did it happen? WHO took part in the event?

Assignment for work in a notebook Write a note in your notebook about the assassination of Emperor Paul I and the palace coup of March 11, 1801. Come up with the name of the publication for which this note is intended.

Alexander's secret committee believed that the country needed reforms. He gathered around him companions with whom he had once studied together. This informal advisory body was called the Secret Committee. It was formed in 1797, but the period of its operation is considered to be from 1801 to May 1802.

Pavel Aleksandrovich Stroganov (1772 -1817) Russian military and statesman, count. Friend and ally of Alexander I. Member of the Secret Committee. Author unknown. Portrait from the Military Gallery of the Winter Palace

Viktor Pavlovich Kochubey (1768 -1834) Diplomat and statesman, Minister of Internal Affairs, Prince. Friend and ally of Alexander I. Member of the Secret Committee. F. Gerard Portrait of V. Kochubey.

Adam Jerzy Czartoryski (1770 -1861) Polish and Russian statesman, writer, philanthropist, prince. Friend and ally of Alexander I. Member of the Secret Committee. Author unknown. Portrait of A. Czartoryski

Nikolai Nikolaevich Novosiltsev (1761 -1838) Russian statesman, count. Friend and ally of Alexander I. Member of the Secret Committee. S.S. Shchukin. Portrait of Count N. Novosiltsev

Secret Committee Task: to help the emperor “in systematic work on the reform of the shapeless building of the administration of the empire.” First steps: - amnesty for 12 thousand people who suffered under Paul I - Western European goods and books are again allowed to be imported.

Secret committee Action plan: study the situation of the empire, carry out preliminary reforms, complete these reforms with a “code established on the basis of the true spirit of the people.”

The beginning of the transformation. Five decrees of Alexander I dated April 2, 1801 1. The “Charter of Complaint to the Nobility” was restored in full; 2. The “Charter of Grant to Cities” has been restored in full; 3. freedom of passage of Russian works abroad has been established;

The beginning of the transformation. Five decrees of Alexander I of April 2, 1801 4. Improved conditions for prisoners; 5. All court cases were transferred to the Senate for consideration.

The reform of the highest bodies of state power began in September 1802. All members of the Secret Committee joined the government: V. Kochubey became the Minister of Internal Affairs, P. Stroganov - his deputy, N. Novosiltsev - Deputy Minister of Justice, A. Czartoryski - Minister of Foreign Affairs .

Reform of the highest bodies of state power - collegiums were abolished, and 8 ministries appeared in their place; — The Senate has been transformed into the highest judicial body of the empire; - the Committee of Ministers was created - a body to discuss issues of governing the country.

Reform of public education in 1803. A coherent system of educational institutions at various levels was created. The number of educational institutions has increased. Universities received broad autonomy (independence from the authorities).

Peasant question February 20, 1803 - The decree on “free cultivators” is the first law in the history of Russia that made it possible to free peasants from serfdom. Landowners could release their peasants with their land holdings for a ransom.

From the Decree on “free cultivators” of February 20, 1803 “If any of the landowners wishes to release their acquired or family peasants, individually, or as a whole village, to freedom, and at the same time approve for them a plot of land or an entire dacha; then having made conditions with them that are recognized by mutual agreement as the best, he has to submit them at his request through the provincial noble leader to the Minister of the Interior for consideration and presentation to us; and if a decision follows from us in accordance with his wishes: then these conditions will be presented in the Civil Chamber and will be recorded with the serfs with the payment of legal duties.”

Question for the lesson: How can you explain the fact that a landowner who wanted to release his peasants had to seek permission from the Minister of the Interior?

The Peasant Question The practical significance of the Decree on “free cultivators” was insignificant. During the 25 years of the reign of Alexander I, only 47 thousand peasants were freed (0.5% of the total number of serfs). Most landowners simply did not comply with this decree.

The Peasant Question In 1804, the first step towards the abolition of serfdom was taken in the Baltic states - peasants were recognized as the owners of their land, and their duties were clearly defined. Reforms in the Baltic states were supposed to “set an example for all of Russia.”