Seasonal maintenance of aviation equipment. The terrain and its influence on the combat operations of the troops. Seasonal Tactical Terrain Changes Winner Takes All

SEASONAL CHANGES IN TACTICAL TERRAIN

General provisions

AT modern conditions As experience has shown, the troops are capable of conducting combat operations at any time of the year. But the terrain, as you know, does not remain constant, unchanged throughout the year; its natural elements, as well as their tactical properties, are subject to significant seasonal changes. The same terrain in summer and winter has different tactical properties: different cross-country ability, different conditions for camouflage, orientation, surveillance, engineering support, etc.

Seasonal changes in terrain are observed in all natural and climatic zones. At the same time, in some zones, for example, in the tropics, there are two seasons (dry and wet), in the temperate zone - four (spring, summer, autumn and winter). The nature of seasonal changes in the terrain is also different. Since the influence of seasonal changes in the terrain of tropical regions has already been considered (see Chapter 12), we will focus on brief description seasonal changes in the tactical properties of the terrain in the regions of the temperate climate zone.

The most favorable seasons for conducting combat operations in the temperate zones are summer and winter. During these seasons, the area has the best passability, as soils and soils dry out in summer and freeze in winter. Less favorable for combat operations are the transitional seasons of the year - spring and autumn. These seasons are usually characterized by high rainfall, high soil moisture, high level water in rivers and lakes, which in combination creates significant difficulties for the conduct of military operations of troops.

Tactical properties areas in spring and autumn

In spring and autumn, the passability of the terrain in most regions of the temperate zone is significantly worsened due to mudslides, floods and floods.

Spring thaw begins after the snow cover melts and the soil begins to thaw. During thawing, the topsoil becomes waterlogged and has low strength and viscosity. The permeability of soils is especially difficult when they thaw to a depth of 30-40 cm. As the soil dries, a harder crust forms on the soil surface, below which the soil continues to retain significant moisture. Only after the soil has dried to a depth of 18-22 cm traffic conditions become satisfactory. The strength of the soil increases most sharply when it is completely thawed and dried.

Autumn thaw occurs as a result of even more waterlogging of soils than in spring due to heavy autumn precipitation and a decrease in air temperature. When the temperature drops to +5°C and frequent autumn rains, clayey and loamy soils turn into a plastic state. All this creates a long-term autumn thaw, which makes it difficult for cars to move off-road and on dirt roads (Figure 35). At this time, the speed of movement of not only wheeled, but also tracked vehicles decreases.

Periods of spring and autumn thaws, as a rule, are accompanied by sharp fluctuations in temperature, overcast, fog, strong winds, frequent precipitation (with alternating rain and sleet). All these unfavorable meteorological phenomena sharply worsen the tactical properties of the terrain and, consequently, have a negative effect on the combat operations of the troops.

Seasonal changes in rivers are manifested in the periodic change in their water content, which is reflected in fluctuations in the water level, flow velocity and other characteristics. The main phases of such changes in the lowland rivers of Asia, Europe and North America are floods, low water and floods.

During the flood period, as the flow of water increases and its level rises, the depth and width of the river increase. The river overflows its banks and floods the floodplain. The floodplain becomes impassable, and ice floes and trees floating along the river can not only damage, but disable the crossing facilities. During floods, it is more difficult to reconnoiter a water barrier, to clear mines from the approaches, the banks and the bottom, it is more difficult to choose the places of approach to the opposite bank of landing craft, to establish piers and collect ferries. Therefore, in high water, even small rivers turn into serious obstacles to the movement of troops.

On snow-fed rivers, which include most of the rivers of the temperate zone, the spring flood continues: on small rivers 10-15 days, on large rivers with large watersheds and extensive floodplains 2-3 months.

After the end of the spring flood, low water begins on the lowland rivers - a long period of the lowest water level in the rivers. At this time, the water content of the river is minimal and is supported mainly by groundwater supply, since there is little precipitation at this time.

In autumn, the discharge and water level in the rivers increase again, due to a decrease in temperature and a decrease in the evaporation of moisture from the soil, as well as more frequent autumn rains.

In addition to floods, there are also floods on the rivers - short-term rises in the water level in the rivers resulting from heavy rains and water releases from reservoirs. Unlike floods, floods occur at any time of the year. Significant floods can cause flooding.

The amplitude of fluctuations in the water level in the rivers (low-high water) sometimes reaches 3-16 m, water consumption increases on average P 5-20 times, and the flow rate is 2-3 times.

In the conditions of mudslides, floods and floods, the advancing troops are forced to move on soggy ground and overcome numerous water barriers that are wider than usual and deeper, as well as vast swampy floodplains, which slows down the pace of the offensive.

On our topographic maps, the state of the soil during the thaw period is not displayed, and the rivers are depicted according to their state in the low water period. However, on maps of a scale of 1:200,000 and larger, the flood zones of large rivers during floods, as well as flood zones in the event of the destruction of reservoir dams, are displayed with a special symbol. More detailed data on the time of the thaw, the duration and height of the flood are contained in the hydrological descriptions of the regions and rivers, as well as in the information about the area placed on the back of each sheet of the map at a scale of 1: 200,000.

Tactical properties of the terrain in winter

The main natural factors that leave their mark on the combat operations of troops in winter include: low temperatures, snowstorms, short days and long nights, as well as winter freezing of soils, ice cover on reservoirs and swamps, and snow cover.

Effect of low temperatures

Low winter temperatures have a direct impact on the combat effectiveness of personnel and the operation of machines and mechanisms. First of all, low temperatures necessitate special winter equipment for troops with clothing and equipment, which significantly reduce mobility and increase fatigue of personnel. In winter conditions, in addition to equipping shelters to protect troops from the effects of conventional and nuclear weapons, it is necessary to equip points for heating personnel, warming cars, etc. In winter, the percentage of colds increases, and in some cases frostbite of personnel is observed. For example, during the Great Patriotic War Soviet Union the army of fascist Germany turned out to be unprepared for actions in winter conditions, as a result of which only in the winter of 1941-1942. over 112 thousand soldiers and officers of the Nazi army were out of action due to severe frostbite.

Low temperatures adversely affect the operation of military equipment. In severe frosts * the metal becomes more brittle, the lubricants thicken, the elasticity of rubber and plastic products decreases; this requires special care and maintenance of equipment. At low temperatures, the operation of liquid power sources becomes more difficult, starting motors is difficult, and the reliability of hydraulic and oil mechanisms is reduced. Finally, under winter conditions, the preparation for action, the mode of operation and the firing range of artillery change significantly. All this makes it necessary to carry out a number of measures to maintain the combat capability of personnel and ensure the trouble-free operation of equipment and weapons in difficult winter conditions.

Seasonal freezing of soils

Seasonal freezing of soils is observed where negative air temperatures are maintained for a long period. The duration and depth of seasonal soil freezing increase in the general direction from south to north in accordance with climate change. So, for example, in the United States, the depth of winter soil freezing increases from south to north by 2-3 cm for every 40 and and in the state of North Dakota (near the border with Canada) reaches more than 1.2 m. In our Moscow region, soil freezing is about 1.0 ^ and in the Arkhangelsk region it increases to 2 m. In the northeastern regions of the USSR and in northern Canada, seasonal freezing of soils is even greater; it merges with the permafrost layer and lasts more than 10 months a year.

The frozen layer of soil has a significant impact on the passability and engineering equipment of the area. The concept of “frozen soil” is not applicable to everyone, but only to loose wet soils, which, when frozen, turn into ice concrete with a density of about one and a strength that is 3-5 times greater than the strength of ice. Frozen sandy soils at a temperature of -10 ° C have a compressive strength of 120-150 kg / cm 2, i.e. 4-5 times the strength of ice.

An increase in the mechanical strength of soils as a result of their freezing negates the difference in the passability of dry and wet (boggy) areas of the terrain, which is observed in the summer. Frozen by 8-10 cm and wetter sands, loams and clays become quite passable for any type of transport and military equipment in winter. Therefore, winter roads and columned paths are often laid along river valleys and even through swamps - these difficult terrain in summer.

The freezing of the soil makes it difficult to destroy the defensive structures with artillery fire. Such soil weakens the impact shock wave nuclear explosion on wood-earth fortifications and shelters, reduces the levels of radiation penetrating into light earthen shelters.

At the same time, the freezing of soils significantly complicates the engineering equipment of the area. Frozen soils acquire a hardness close to the hardness of rocks. The development of frozen soils is 4-5 times slower than their development in unfrozen form. At the same time, the complexity of earthworks in winter depends on the depth of soil freezing. When soil freezes to a depth of 0.5 m the labor intensity of earthworks increases by 2.5 times, and with a freezing depth of 1.25 m and more - 3-5 times compared with the development of thawed soil. The development of frozen soils requires the use of special tools and machines, as well as drilling and blasting.

The depth of seasonal freezing of soils depends on the duration of stable frosts and the “amount of cold” that has penetrated into the thickness of the soil since the beginning of the frost period. The simplest calculations of the depth of soil freezing are based on the sum of average daily or average monthly air temperatures since the beginning of winter. So, for example, in construction, the depth of soil freezing is determined by the following formula:

H = 23 V £7 + 2,

where ХТ is the sum of average monthly negative air temperatures for the winter.

The air temperature is measured several times a day at meteorological stations. Therefore, average monthly temperatures and their sum for any point can be obtained from climate reference books.

The depth of soil freezing depends on their mechanical composition, the depth of groundwater, moisture content and the thickness of the snow cover. Observations have established that the finer the soil particles, the greater its porosity and moisture capacity, and the lower the depth and rate of freezing. For example, sands freeze 2-3 times faster and deeper than loams. The freezing depth of clay soils is 25% greater than that of chernozem and peat bogs. On drained uplands, soils always freeze earlier and deeper than in lowlands and wetlands. Soil freezing never reaches the groundwater level and stops a little above this surface.

In open areas of terrain with a well-developed grass cover, the depth of soil freezing is approximately 50% less than in bare (ploughed) areas. In the forest, soils freeze through approximately 2 times less than in an open field. The depth of soil freezing under the snow cover is always less than on the bare surface. In areas with fairly high snow cover, the freezing depth is 1.5–2 times less than in areas free of snow.

Ice cover on water bodies

The onset of the frosty period is accompanied by the formation of ice on the surface of rivers, lakes and other water bodies. Freezing water bodies significantly improves their permeability. Troops cross over the ice of frozen rivers and lakes. The beds of large rivers are used as directions convenient for laying winter roads, landing sites are being equipped on the ice of wide rivers and lakes. In some northern regions of Eurasia and North America, the water in the rivers freezes to the bottom, which makes it difficult to supply troops with water from the rivers. Rivers freeze most severely in permafrost regions. Rivers here begin to freeze in October and the drainless period lasts 7-8 months.

The thickness of the ice cover on water bodies, as well as the intensity of its growth, depend on many factors, and above all on the duration of the frost period, the "force of frost", the depth of the snow cover on the ice and the speed of the water flow in the river (Appendix 6). Data on the average long-term ice thickness on a particular river in winter can be found in climate reference books and hydrological descriptions.

To determine the possibility of crossing any cargo on ice, it is necessary to know not only the actual ice thickness on the river, but also the ice thickness that ensures the safety of the movement of this type of transport (Appendix 7). For freshwater basins, the allowable ice thickness is usually determined based on the weight of the cargo using the formula

l \u003d 1oGo,

and for salt water basins according to the formula

L \u003d 101/30,

where to-- allowable ice thickness at crossings, cm: d - weight of the cargo (machine), g.

The movement of troops on the ice of a river or lake is carried out after a thorough reconnaissance of the strength of the ice, the places of entry from the shore to the ice and the exit to the opposite shore. When moving on ice, cars in a convoy follow at increased distances. On ice of low strength, trailers and implements are towed on a long cable. Cars move smoothly on ice, in low gears, without sharp turns, braking, gear changes and stops. The personnel dismount and follow the vehicles at a distance of at least 5-10 m

The ice cover formed on the rivers does not remain permanent. During the winter, the thickness of the ice continuously increases. In the middle of winter, in frosty weather, the thickness of ice on rivers at an air temperature of -10 ° C increases by an average of 10-12 for a decade. cm, at -20° - by 15-20 cm, and at -30 ° - by 20-25 cm.

Snow cover reduces the rate of ice buildup. The precipitation of a large amount of snow on the ice immediately after freeze-up almost stops its growth. On many rivers of the northern regions, a thick ice cover is formed due to numerous river icings, which are most often found in permafrost regions and are often very large. Thus, in the northeast of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic there is a perennial icing with an ice thickness of up to \0 m and length up to 27 km. In the Amur basin, an increase in the thickness of ice on rivers over a decade due to icing reaches 50-70 cm against normal 8-10 cm due to its growth only from below.

The solid ice cover on rivers and lakes well protects the water of these objects from radioactive contamination by particles falling in the wake of a nuclear explosion cloud. However, it should be borne in mind that ice on reservoirs under the influence of nuclear explosions can be broken in large areas, which, of course, will temporarily reduce the terrain in such areas.

Freezing swamps

Seasonal freezing of swamps to a considerable depth and for a long period is observed over a large area in Europe, Asia and North America in areas located north of the 45th parallel. So, for example, in Canada, as well as in the middle and northern parts of the USSR, most swamps freeze through in winter by 0.4-1.0 m, i.e., to a depth that allows the movement of all types of transport and equipment.

The freezing of swamps begins simultaneously with the freezing of water bodies and soils. The swamps freeze especially quickly in autumn, before the formation of a deep snow cover on their surface, which then reduces the rate of freezing. With deep snow that has fallen since autumn, some swamps do not freeze at all; snow cover only smooths out irregularities on the surface of the swamp, without improving its permeability. Moreover, a layer of snow on an unfrozen swamp actually creates hidden obstacles, masking difficult places.

The speed and depth of freezing of swamps depend primarily on the total negative air temperatures from the beginning of the frost period or during the winter as a whole. But this general pattern is often violated by many local factors. The passability of swamps in winter depends not only on the depth of the frozen layer, but also on the type of swamp. Moss bogs with equal freezing depths have a lower bearing capacity than grass bogs (Table 18).

Table 18

Passability of swamps by cars in winter

Gross weight cars,t	Needed frozen	layer thickness, cm	Distance between cars.m
	grass swamps	moss swamps
	wheeled	cars
3,5	13	16	18
6	15	18	20
8	17	20	22
10	18	21	25
15	25	29	30
	Tracked vehicles
10	16	19	20
20	20	24	25
30	26	30	35
40	32	36	40
50	40	45	45

For the movement of cars on a loose layer of moss swamps, deeper freezing is required. The mechanical strength of the frozen layer of swamps on average is usually 20-40 kg / cm 2. As a rule, the more watered the swamp, the worse the passability it has in summer, the stronger the ice cover on it and the smaller the depth of freezing required to ensure movement through the swamp in winter. It must be borne in mind that swamp massifs freeze to a depth that is 1.5 times less than adjacent non-boggy areas. Therefore, drained marshes always freeze deeper than non-drained ones.

The smallest thickness (in centimeters) of the frozen swamp layer(German) providing patency of the machine, can be approximately determined by the formula

a

where k=9 for tracked vehicles and 11 for wheeled vehicles;

a - coefficient depending on the nature of the swamp cover (for example, for moss swamps a = 1.6, for grassy swamps a = 2.0);

d is the weight of the car, t.

The depth of the ice cover of reservoirs and swamps is not reflected on topographic maps, only in the certificate of the area on a map of a scale of 1: 200,000 average long-term data on the thickness of ice and the depth of freezing of swamps (if any) are indicated. Therefore, the winter characteristics of rivers, lakes and swamps can be obtained from hydrological and hydrogeological descriptions and reference books for a given area, but mainly on the basis of the results of engineering reconnaissance of the area.

Snow cover

Snow cover is observed annually for several months in most of Europe, Asia and North America. It radically changes the appearance of the terrain and its tactical properties: patency, conditions for observation, orientation, camouflage, engineering equipment, etc. Deep snow cover limits the patency of combat and transport vehicles both on and off roads. With snow cover deeper than 20-30 cm the terrain is practically passable for wheeled vehicles only along roads and specially equipped columned paths, from which freshly fallen or blown snow is systematically removed.

Troops without skis are able to move at normal speed through snow no deeper than 20-25 cm. With a snow depth of more than 30 cm walking speed is reduced to 2-3 km/h Armored personnel carriers move freely on snow with a depth of no more than 30 cm. The speed of tanks moving through snow 60-70 deep cm, decreases by 1.5-2 times against the usual.

Moving under the action of the wind, snow covers the terrain extremely unevenly (fills in small irregularities and smooths out large ones) and thereby creates hidden obstacles to the movement of troops.

A continuous layer of snow, even of shallow depth, hides many local landmarks that are clearly visible in summer and are available on topographic maps. The snow cover also hides most of the local dirt roads, streams and small rivers, gullies and ravines, ditches and wetlands, soils and undersized vegetation. All this creates more difficult conditions for orientation, target designation and movement of troops in winter over snow-covered territory. In winter, the conformity of the topographic map of the area is sharply reduced, which makes it difficult for troops to orient themselves on the map in unfamiliar terrain.

Snow cover, masking some objects, emphasizes others with its whiteness. So, for example, with continuous snow cover, rivers, lakes and swamps, unexploited roads and all low buildings and plants become less visible from the air. At the same time, heavily traveled roads, contours of forests, tall buildings, unfrozen sections of rivers, and many other dark-colored objects stand out more clearly against the background of snow. On the virgin snow, the movements of troops and their locations are clearly recorded. Therefore, the white color in winter becomes the main color, under which all types of equipment and personnel are disguised.

Snow cover with a depth of more than 50cm suitable for arranging communications with snow parapets in it. Bricks made of dense snow are used to equip firing positions, trenches, anti-tank ramparts, as well as various kinds of shelters, shelters and camouflage walls. Finally, loose loose snow can be used to remove radioactive and toxic substances from uniforms, weapons and equipment directly in the field.

A significant thickness of the snow layer has good protective properties against radioactive contamination. So, a layer of snow with a density of 0.4 and a thickness of 50 cm attenuates gamma radiation by half. At the same time, the radius of the zone of damage to personnel by the light radiation of a nuclear explosion in a snowy area due to the reflection of light from a white surface can increase by 1.2-1.4 times compared to the summer landscape.

The presence of deep snow cover on the terrain significantly affects the nature of combat operations of troops. This finds expression in the construction of battle formations, the maneuverability of troops, the pace of the offensive, the engineering support of hostilities, etc. movement on virgin snow on armored personnel carriers is excluded, units operate on skis or on foot. Tanks, in this case, usually advance in the combat formations of motorized rifle units.

The depth of the snow cover and the duration of its occurrence on the ground depend on the geographical latitude of the area and the amount of precipitation falling here in winter. In the Northern Hemisphere, both increase in a general direction from south to north. So, in the south of the USSR, in Central Europe and in the north of the USA, snow cover is observed for 1-2 months a year and its depth does not exceed 20-30 cm. In the more northern regions of the USSR, in Scandinavia, Canada, Alaska and the islands of the Polar Basin, snow lies for more than six months and its depth in some places reaches 1.0-1.5 m and more. Finally, in mountainous regions, as well as on the islands of the Arctic Ocean, eternal snows are observed - the source of food for mountain and continental glaciers.

On undivided plains, snow usually lies in an even layer. On the plains, dissected by river valleys, gullies and ravines, a significant part of the snow is blown away by the wind into depressions in the relief. In the mountains and in northern regions with strong winds, one can observe bare areas of uplands and large accumulations of snow in relief depressions and on lee slopes.

Snow movement starts at wind speeds over 5 m/sec. With a wind speed of 6-8 m/s snow is carried over the surface of the snow cover in streams (drifting). A stronger and gusty wind lifts snow tens of meters and carries it in the form of a cloud of snow dust (blizzard).

An important characteristic of snow cover is its density. It depends on the structure of the snow cover and ranges from 0.02 g/cm 3(for freshly fallen snow) up to 0.7 g/cm 3(for heavily wet and then frozen snow, which brings it closer to the ice density of 0.92 g/cm?). The significance of these values ​​can be judged by the fact that a snow cover with a density of 0.3 keeps a person without skis. Cars and tractors can move without falling through the surface of snow with a density of 0.5-0.6. Considering that the snow density in the middle of winter for most areas is 0.2-0.3, it can be concluded that the movement of cars and tanks is impossible along the natural snow cover. Therefore, in all cases, the snow must either be cleared or artificially compacted. Only in certain areas of Antarctica and the Arctic, where the snow density is more than 0.6, cars and tractors can go on virgin snow without compacting it. The presence of snow cover reduces the available steepness of slopes (Appendix 8).

In the conditions of the use of nuclear weapons in winter, the snow cover will also affect the radioactive contamination of the area.

First, in the event of snowfall after a nuclear explosion, the snowflakes passing through the radioactive cloud will capture radioactive particles. Falling to the ground, they form a layer of snow with one or another level of radiation. Thus, troops in winter may find themselves in an area of ​​radioactive snowfall or overcome terrain covered with a layer of freshly fallen radioactive snow.

Secondly, freshly fallen snow is easily blown by the wind over long distances. In the event of a blizzard after a nuclear explosion, masses of radioactive snow will move and concentrate in depressions in the relief. But since the snow almost never melts in winter, the snow cover, especially its snowdrifts in depressions, can be sources of radioactive exposure of troops. In general, the radioactive contamination of the area in winter will be less than in summer, since dust particles from the snowy and frozen surface of the earth are less involved in the cloud of a nuclear explosion.

Information about the depth of snow cover in a given territory can be found in the terrain certificate on a map at a scale of 1:200,000, and you can also get an idea of ​​​​this on large-scale aerial photographs (larger than I: 50,000). Aerial photographs make it possible to approximately determine the depth of the snow cover by some indirect signs. From such images, one can judge the presence and thickness of snow drifts on the roads and in the recesses of the relief.

Deep snow cover increases the amount of work on the engineering equipment of the area. There is a need to systematically clear roads from snow, lay columned paths, prepare crossings over water barriers, equip snow barriers on roads, etc.

Snowfalls and blizzards, accompanied by strong winds, have a great influence on the combat operations of troops in winter. They reduce visibility, make it difficult to observe the battlefield, navigate the terrain and conduct aimed fire, and also complicate the interaction and command and control of troops. In addition, snowfalls and blizzards require continuous clearing of roads and columns, reduce the productivity of engineering work, and complicate the driving of military and transport vehicles.

Short days and long nights also have a significant effect on combat operations in winter. For mid-latitudes, the duration of the day in winter is 7-9 hours, and nights - 15-17 h. Thus, in winter, the troops are forced to conduct combat operations for the most part in the conditions of darkness, which, naturally, causes additional difficulties inherent in combat operations at night.

Thus, when organizing military operations in winter, commanders will need to solve a number of specific "winter" problems along with resolving the usual issues. In particular, to allocate more manpower and resources for the preparation and maintenance of routes, to provide subunits with skis, sleds and off-road vehicles, to organize heating of personnel and to take measures to prevent frostbite of people, and also to take care of the preservation of weapons and military equipment. and Vehicle in conditions of low temperatures and provide for other measures to ensure the successful completion of combat missions in winter conditions.

CONCLUSION

The main trends in the development of modern combat and operations - the increase in the spatial scope, dynamism and decisiveness of hostilities - necessitate the collection and processing of an ever-increasing amount of information characterizing the situation and necessary for the commander to make an informed decision. At the same time, the transience of events leads to a continuous change in the elements of the situation, including the characteristics of the terrain on which combat operations of troops take place. Therefore, in order to successfully conduct combat operations, commanders of all levels and headquarters, along with other information about the situation, must receive complete and reliable information about the location in a simple and visual form.

The most universal document, which contains basic data on the terrain of interest to headquarters and troops, is a topographic map. However, due to the static nature of the cartographic image, the topographic map is aging and over time its compliance with the current state of the area is reduced.

With the outbreak of hostilities, especially in the context of the use of nuclear weapons, many elements of the terrain undergo significant changes and the inconsistency of the map of the given area is especially pronounced. In this case, aerial photographs are the main and most reliable source of information about changes in the terrain that have taken place in the course of hostilities. If it is impossible to take aerial photographs due to weather conditions or for other reasons, data on changes in the terrain in the enemy's disposition as a result of the impact of our troops are determined by the method of forecasting.

If the available topographic maps for the desired territory are significantly outdated by the start of hostilities, the production of photographic documents about the area (photoschemes, photographic plans, etc.) based on aerial reconnaissance materials and their timely delivery to the troops can sometimes be the only way providing troops with the most recent and reliable information about the state of the terrain for the period of hostilities.

In the process of reconnaissance of the terrain, in studying and evaluating it from topographic maps and aerial photographs, as well as in predicting changes, all the physical and geographical features and tactical properties of the terrain described above, which contribute to the conduct of combat operations of troops or hinder them, must be taken into account.

The more complex geographical conditions (terrain, climate, season, weather, time of day), the more information about them is necessary for headquarters and troops to successfully conduct combat operations.

The main tactical properties of the terrain, which have a significant impact on the conduct of military operations of troops, are the conditions of cross-country ability, protection of troops from weapons of mass destruction, orientation, camouflage and engineering equipment. The correct and timely assessment and use by the troops of these tactical properties of the terrain contribute to their successful accomplishment of their combat mission; underestimating the role of the terrain in a battle or operation can make it difficult, and in some cases even lead to a disruption in the fulfillment of the assigned combat mission.

APPS

Table of indicators of overpressure causing severe and moderate destruction of buildings and pipelines

	Overpressure,
	kg1slR, causing
Type of buildings and pipelines	destruction
	strong	average
One-story wooden buildings. . .	0,2	0,17
Timber-framed buildings....	0,25	0,17
One-story brick building. .	0,35-0,40	0,25-0,30
One-story reinforced concrete buildings	0,6-0,8	0,4-0,5
Multi-storey brick residential buildings	0,35	0,25
with load-bearing walls
	1,4	0,9
with a steel frame.....
Multi-storey administrative buildings		0.7
nia with a reinforced concrete frame. .	1,0
Mass industrial buildings with	0,9	0,55
steel frame.........
Gas, water and sewerage	15,0	6,0
underground networks......

Note. Strong destruction - a significant part of the walls in height and most of the ceilings collapse.

Medium destruction - many cracks form in the load-bearing walls, separate sections of the walls, roofs and attic floors collapse, all internal partitions are completely destroyed.

Atmospheric pressure and boiling point of water at different altitudes

Absolute height.m	Atmosphere pressure,mm	Boiling point of water, °С
0	760,0	100,0
5i0	716,0	97.9
1000	674,1	96,7
1500	634,7	94,5
2000	596,2	93,6
2500	561,0	91,5
3000	525,8	89,7
4000	462,3	87.0
5000	405,1	82,7

Angles of repose in various soils

	Angles of repose
soils	in degrees
	dry gruite	wet ground
Loess.................	50-80	10-15
Pebble............	40-45	40-43
Gravels............	40-45	40-43
Stony. ...........	45	45
Clay..............	45-55	15-25
Loamy ... .....	45	15-25
Sandy loam.....*.....	40-45	25-30
Sandy ..........	30-38	22-30
Peat....	35	30

Note. The angle of repose is the angle formed by the surface of loose soil during shedding.

Approximate chemical composition of some soils, soils and rocks

	The content of oxides of elements. >/
Name of soils, soils.								about
breeds	O	about	about V	about yl	about ha	about ha	about	X B" about a.
			and.		and	2		FROM
Soils
Swampy ......	43,44	16,51	5,18	1,90	1,04	3,12	2,06	26,75
Podzolic.....	79,90	8,13	3,22	1,26	1,33	2,39	1,88	1,89
Chernozem.......	64,28	13,61	4,75	1,53	1,78	1,55	1,28	11,22
Salt......	61,74	8,89	4,00	1,37	0,05	1,44	1.11	21,40
Soils and rocks
Loess.........	69,46	8,36	1,44	9,66	2,53	1,31	2,30	4,94
Clay.........	56,65	20,00	2,00	2,00	2,00	2,00	2,00	13,35
Kaolin........	46,50	39,50						14,00
Sand.........	78,31	4,76	1,08	5,50	1,16	1,32	0,45	7,42
Limestone.......	5,19	0,81	0,54		42,57	7,89	0,06	42,94
Granite........	73,31	12,41	3,85	0,20	0,30	3,93	3,72	2,28
Basalt........	49,06	19,84	3,46	8,90	2,51	0,53	2,92	12,78
Shale. . .	58,11	15,40	4,02	3,10	2,44	3,24	1,30	12,39
Snenit........	63,52	17,92	0,96	1,00	0,59	6,08	6,67	3,33

APPENDIX 6 The rate of ice formation on water bodies and the growth of ice

Ice formation rate

On lakes and slow flowing rivers

10	1,1	0,55	0,4	0,3
20	4,4	2,2	1.4	M
30	10,0	5,0	3,3	2,5
40	17,7	8,8	5,9	4,4
50	27,8	13,9	9,3	6,9
	On fast flowing rivers
10	2,5	1,25	0,75	0,62
20	10,0	5.0	3,33	2,50
30	22,5	11,2	7,5	5,62
40	40,0	20,0	13,33	10,0
50	62,5	31,25	20,71	15,62
		Ice Growth

Average daily air temperature, °С	Initial ice thicknesscm
	Ice growth per day,cm
- 10 -20 -30	5-7 8-10 11-13	2-4 4-6 7-10	2-3 3-6 4-7	1-3 2-5 3-6	1-2 2-4 2-5	0,6-1.5 1.3-2.6 2-3	0,5-1,3 1.1-2,0 1,4-2,7

Crossing of rivers and lakes by vehicles on ice (temperature below -5°С)

Machine type	Full weight. G	Required ice thickness,cm
	6	22
	10	28
	16	36
	20	40
Tracked vehicles (tanks,	30	49
armored personnel carriers, etc.)	four"	57
	50	64
	■ 60	70
	2	16
	4	22
Wheeled vehicles (cars)	6	27
armored personnel carriers)	8	31
	10	35
Troops on foot:
one by one in a column	-	4
in a column of two	-	6
in any build		15

Note. At temperatures above -5°C and especially above 0°C, the strength of ice decreases sharply.

Based on the book P.A Ivankova and G.V. Zakharova

In connection with the ongoing clashes in different countries of the world, TV screens constantly broadcast news reports from one or another hot spot. And very often there are alarming reports of hostilities, during which various multiple launch rocket systems (MLRS) are actively involved. It is difficult for a person who is in no way connected with the army or the military to navigate in a wide variety of all kinds of military equipment, so in this article we will tell a simple layman in detail about such death machines as:

• Tank-based heavy flamethrower system (TOS) - Buratino multiple launch rocket system (rarely used, but very effective weapon).
• Multiple launch rocket system (MLRS) "Grad" - widely used
• The upgraded and improved "sister" of the MLRS "Grad" - jet (which the media and the townsfolk often call "Typhoon" because of the chassis used in the combat vehicle from the "Typhoon" truck).
• The volley fire system is a powerful weapon with a long range, used to destroy almost any target.
• Having no analogues in the whole world, unique, causing reverent horror and used for total annihilation, the Smerch multiple rocket launcher system (MLRS).

"Pinocchio" from an unkind fairy tale

In the relatively distant 1971, in the USSR, engineers from the "Design Bureau of Transport Engineering", located in Omsk, presented another masterpiece of military power. It was a heavy flamethrower system of volley fire "Pinocchio" (TOSZO). The creation and subsequent improvement of this flamethrower complex was kept under the heading "top secret". The development lasted 9 years, and in 1980 the combat complex, which is a kind of tandem of the T-72 tank and a launcher with 24 guides, was finally approved and delivered to the Armed Forces of the Soviet Army.

"Pinocchio": application

TOSZO "Pinocchio" is used for arson and significant damage:

• enemy equipment (with the exception of armored);
• multi-storey buildings and other construction projects;
• various protective structures;
• living force.

MLRS (TOS) "Pinocchio": description

As multiple launch rocket systems "Grad" and "Uragan", TOSZO "Pinocchio" was first used in the Afghan and in the second Chechen wars. According to 2014 data, the military forces of Russia, Iraq, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have such combat vehicles.

The Buratino salvo fire system has the following characteristics:

• The weight of the TOC with a full set for combat is about 46 tons.
• The length of Pinocchio is 6.86 meters, width - 3.46 meters, height - 2.6 meters.
• The caliber of the projectiles is 220 millimeters (22 cm).
• For firing, uncontrolled rockets are used, which cannot be controlled after they are fired.
• The greatest shooting distance is 13.6 kilometers.
• The maximum area of ​​destruction after the production of one volley is 4 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 24 pieces.
• The aiming of the volley is carried out directly from the cockpit using a special fire control system, which consists of a sight, a roll sensor and a ballistic computer.
• Shells for completing ROSZO after volleys are carried out by means of a transport-loading (TZM) machine model 9T234-2, with a crane and a charger.
• Manage "Pinocchio" 3 people.

As can be seen from the characteristics, just one volley of "Pinocchio" is capable of turning 4 hectares into a flaming hell. Impressive power, right?

Precipitation in the form of "Grad"

In 1960, the USSR monopolist in the production of multiple launch rocket systems and other weapons of mass destruction, NPO Splav, launched another secret project and began developing a completely new at that time MLRS called Grad. The introduction of adjustments lasted 3 years, and the MLRS entered the ranks of the Soviet Army in 1963, but its improvement did not stop there, it continued until 1988.

"Grad": application

Like the Uragan MLRS, the Grad multiple launch rocket system showed in battle so nice results, which, despite its "advanced age", continues to be widely used to this day. "Grad" is used to deliver a very impressive blow to:

• artillery batteries;
• any military equipment, including armored;
• manpower;
• command posts;
• military-industrial facilities;
• anti-aircraft complexes.

In addition to the sun Russian Federation, the Grad multiple launch rocket system is in service with almost all countries of the world, including almost all continents of the globe. The largest number of combat vehicles of this type is located in the USA, Hungary, Sudan, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Vietnam, Bulgaria, Germany, Egypt, India, Kazakhstan, Iran, Cuba, Yemen. Ukraine's multiple launch rocket systems also contain 90 Grad units.

MLRS "Grad": description

The multiple launch rocket system "Grad" has the following characteristics:

• The total weight of the Grad MLRS, ready for battle and equipped with all shells, is 13.7 tons.
• The length of the MLRS is 7.35 meters, the width is 2.4 meters, the height is 3.09 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is 122 millimeters (a little over 12 cm).
• For firing, base rockets with a caliber of 122 mm are used, as well as fragmentation high-explosive explosive shells, chemical, incendiary and smoke warheads.
• from 4 to 42 kilometers.
• The maximum area of ​​destruction after the production of one volley is 14.5 hectares.
• One volley is carried out in just 20 seconds.
• A full reload of the MLRS "Grad" lasts about 7 minutes.
• The reactive system is brought into combat position in no more than 3.5 minutes.
• Reloading of the MLRS is possible only with the use of a transport-loading vehicle.
• The sight is implemented using the gun panorama.
• Manage "Castle" 3 people.

"Grad" is a multiple launch rocket system, the characteristics of which in our time receive the highest score from the military. Throughout its existence, it has been used in the Afghan war, in the clashes between Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh, in both Chechen wars, during the military operations in Libya, South Ossetia and Syria, as well as in the civil war in Donbass (Ukraine), which broke out in 2014 year.

Attention! The tornado is coming

"Tornado-G" (as mentioned above, this MLRS is sometimes mistakenly called "Typhoon", therefore, for convenience, both names are given here) - a multiple launch rocket system, which is a modernized version of the MLRS "Grad". The design engineers of the Splav plant worked on the creation of this powerful hybrid. Development began in 1990 and lasted 8 years. For the first time, the capabilities and power of the jet system were demonstrated in 1998 at a training ground near Orenburg, after which it was decided to further improve this MLRS.To get the final result, the developers over the next 5 years improved the "Tornado-G" ("Typhoon").The volley fire system was enlisted in the arsenal of the Russian Federation in 2013. At the moment, this combat vehicle is only in service with the Russian Federation "Tornado-G" ("Typhoon") is a multiple launch rocket system, which has no analogues anywhere.

"Tornado": application

MLRS is used in combat to crush targets such as:

• artillery;
• all types of enemy equipment;
• military and industrial facilities;
• anti-aircraft complexes.

MLRS "Tornado-G" ("Typhoon"): description

"Tornado-G" ("Typhoon") is a multiple launch rocket system, which, due to the increased power of ammunition, greater range and built-in satellite guidance system, surpassed its so-called "big sister" - MLRS "Grad" - 3 times.

Characteristics:

• The weight of the fully equipped MLRS is 15.1 tons.
• Length "Tornado-G" - 7.35 meters, width - 2.4 meters, height - 3 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is 122 millimeters (12.2 cm).
• MLRS "Tornado-G" is universal in that, in addition to the basic shells from the MLRS "Grad", it is possible to use new generation ammunition with detachable cumulative warheads filled with cluster explosive elements, as well as
• The firing range under favorable landscape conditions reaches 100 kilometers.
• The maximum area subject to destruction after the production of one volley is 14.5 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 40 pieces.
• The sight is carried out using several hydraulic drives.
• One volley is carried out in 20 seconds.
• The deadly machine is ready to go within 6 minutes.
• Shooting is carried out using a remote installation (DU) and a fully automated fire control system located in the cockpit.
• Crew - 2 people.

Fierce "Hurricane"

As happened with most MLRS, the history of the Hurricane began back in the USSR, or rather, in 1957. The "fathers" of the MLRS "Hurricane" were Ganichev Alexander Nikitovich and Kalachnikov Yuri Nikolaevich. Moreover, the first designed the system itself, and the second developed a combat vehicle.

"Hurricane": application

MLRS "Hurricane" is designed to break targets such as:

• artillery batteries;
• any enemy equipment, including armored;
• living force;
• all kinds of building objects;
• anti-aircraft missile systems;
• tactical missiles.

MLRS "Hurricane": description

The first time "Hurricane" was used in the Afghan war. They say that the Mujahideen were afraid of this MLRS to the point of fainting and even gave it a formidable nickname - "shaitan-pipe".

In addition, the Uragan multiple launch rocket system, whose characteristics command respect among soldiers, has been in clashes in South Africa. This is what prompted the military of the African continent to produce developments in the field of MLRS.

At the moment, this MLRS is in service with such countries as: Russia, Ukraine, Afghanistan, Czech Republic, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Belarus, Poland, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Yemen, Kyrgyzstan, Guinea, Syria, Tajikistan, Eritrea, Slovakia.

The "Hurricane" salvo fire system has the following characteristics:

• The weight of the MLRS fully equipped and in combat readiness is 20 tons.
• The Hurricane is 9.63 meters long, 2.8 meters wide and 3.225 meters high.
• The caliber of the projectiles is 220 millimeters (22 cm). It is possible to use shells with a monolithic high-explosive warhead, with high-explosive fragmentation elements, with anti-tank and anti-personnel mines.
• The firing range is 8-35 kilometers.
• The maximum area of ​​destruction after the production of one volley is 29 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 16 pieces, the guides themselves are able to rotate 240 degrees.
• One volley is carried out in 30 seconds.
• A full reload of the Uragan MLRS lasts about 15 minutes.
• The combat vehicle goes into combat position in just 3 minutes.
• Reloading the MLRS is possible only when interacting with the TK-machine.
• Shooting is carried out either using a portable control panel, or directly from the cockpit.
• The crew is 6 people.

Like the Smerch volley fire system, the Uragan works in any military conditions, as well as in the case when the enemy uses nuclear, bacteriological or In addition, the complex is able to function at any time of the day, regardless of the season and temperature fluctuations. "Hurricane" is able to regularly participate in hostilities both in the cold (-40°C) and in sweltering heat (+50°C). The Uragan MLRS can be delivered to its destination by water, air or rail.

Deadly "Smerch"

The Smerch multiple launch rocket system, whose characteristics surpass all existing MLRS in the world, was created in 1986 and put into service with the military forces of the USSR in 1989. This mighty death machine to this day has no analogues in any of the countries of the world.

"Smerch": application

This MLRS is rarely used, mainly for total annihilation:

• artillery batteries of all types;
• absolutely any military equipment;
• manpower;
• communication centers and command posts;
• construction sites, including military and industrial;
• anti-aircraft complexes.

MLRS "Smerch": description

MLRS "Smerch" is available in armed forces Russia, Ukraine, UAE, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Turkmenistan, Georgia, Algeria, Venezuela, Peru, China, Georgia, Kuwait.

The Smerch salvo fire system has the following characteristics:

• The weight of the MLRS in full configuration and in combat position is 43.7 tons.
• The length of the "Smerch" is 12.1 meters, the width is 3.05 meters, the height is 3.59 meters.
• The caliber of shells is impressive - 300 millimeters.
• For firing, cluster rockets are used with a built-in control system unit and an additional engine that corrects the direction of the charge on the way to the target. The purpose of shells can be different: from fragmentation to thermobaric.
• The firing range of the Smerch MLRS is from 20 to 120 kilometers.
• The maximum area of ​​destruction after the production of one volley is 67.2 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 12 pieces.
• One volley is carried out in 38 seconds.
• A complete re-equipment of the Smerch MLRS with shells takes about 20 minutes.
• The Smerch is ready for combat exploits in a maximum of 3 minutes.
• Reloading of the MLRS is carried out only when interacting with a TK-machine equipped with a crane and a charger.
• The crew is 3 people.

MLRS "Smerch" is an ideal weapon of mass destruction, capable of operating in almost any temperature conditions, day and night. In addition, the shells fired by the Smerch MLRS fall strictly vertically, thereby easily destroying the roofs of houses and armored vehicles. It is almost impossible to hide from the "Smerch", the MLRS burns out and destroys everything within its radius of action. Of course, this is not the power of a nuclear bomb, but still, the one who owns the Tornado owns the world.

The idea of ​​"world peace" is a dream. And as long as there are MLRS, unattainable ...

Aircraft fleet

1 aircraft Boeing 767-300

4 B.C. Boeing 757-200

1 B.C. Boeing 737-700NG

3 aircraft Boeing 737-300

3 aircraft Boeing 737-500

6 B.C. Bombardier CRJ 200

Flight range (km) - 9 700

Crew (pilots) - 2

Boeing 757-200

Crew (pilots) - 2.

Flight range (km) - 6 230

Crew (pilots) - 2

Boeing 737-300

Crew (pilots) - 2.

Boeing 737-500

Cruise speed (km / h) - 800.
Crew (pilots) - 2.

Bombardier CRJ-200

Crew (pilots) - 2.

Safety

Holding general works on the sun:

Seasonal maintenance:

secondary radar

Secondary radar is used in aviation for identification. The main feature is the use of an active transponder on aircraft.

The principle of operation of the secondary radar is somewhat different from the principle of the primary radar. At the heart of the device Secondary radar station components are: a transmitter, an antenna, azimuth mark generators, a receiver, a signal processor, an indicator, and an aircraft transponder with an antenna.

The transmitter is used to generate request pulses in the antenna at a frequency of 1030 MHz.

The antenna is used to emit interrogation pulses and receive the reflected signal. According to ICAO standards for secondary radar, the antenna transmits at a frequency of 1030 MHz and receives at a frequency of 1090 MHz.

Bearing marker generators are used to generate azimuth marks(English) Azimuth Change Pulse, ACP) and labels North (English) Azimuth Reference Pulse, ARP). For one revolution of the radar antenna, 4096 small azimuth marks are generated (for older systems) or 16384 improved small azimuth marks (eng. Improved Azimuth Change pulse, IACP- for new systems), as well as one label of the North. The north mark comes from the azimuth mark generator with the antenna in such a position when it is directed to the North, and small azimuth marks serve to read the antenna turn angle.

The receiver is used to receive pulses at a frequency of 1090 MHz.

The signal processor serves to process the received signals.

The indicator serves to display the processed information.

An aircraft transponder with an antenna is used to transmit a pulsed radio signal containing additional information back to the radar on request.

Advantages of a secondary radar:

higher accuracy;

· Additional Information about the aircraft (board number, height);

low radiation power compared to primary radars;

Long range of detection.

Conclusion

I've mastered some of the finer points civil aviation(GA) in practice, understood how some devices that were incomprehensible to me work, realized their significance in practical activities. Practical activities helped me learn how to independently solve a certain range of tasks that arise in the course of the work of a radio operator. Once again I was convinced that in practice the bulk of the knowledge I received in the classroom would be in demand. Also, my head of practice was a great help in solving the tasks.

Aircraft fleet

The aircraft fleet of SCAT Airlines consists of modern Western-made aircraft, most of which are owned by the company. The regular schedule includes:

1 aircraft Boeing 767-300

4 B.C. Boeing 757-200

1 B.C. Boeing 737-700NG

3 aircraft Boeing 737-300

3 aircraft Boeing 737-500

6 B.C. Bombardier CRJ 200

The wide-body airliner is the most popular long-haul aircraft. The Boeing 767 design combines high fuel efficiency, low noise levels and modern systems avionics. To create it, the most modern materials. The cabin of the 767 is almost 1.5 meters wider than the cabins of earlier designs. There was also plenty of room for luggage and cargo, with the 767-300 variant at 114.2 m³, which was 45% more than any other commercial airliner in its class. The total length of this model is 54.94 meters. The flight range of the aircraft is 9,700 km.

Number of seats - 260

Flight range (km) - 9 700

Cruise speed (km/h) - 850

Maximum height (m) - 13 100

Crew (pilots) - 2

Boeing 757-200

A medium-haul aircraft developed by the American aircraft manufacturer Boeing, which combines advanced technologies that provide exceptional fuel efficiency, low noise levels, increased comfort and high performance. This aircraft can operate on both long and short routes, and is equipped with two powerful jet engines Rolls Royce.

Number of seats - 200/235.
Flight range (km) - 7,200.
Cruising speed (km / h) - 850.
Maximum height (m) - 12,800.
Crew (pilots) - 2.

Boeing 737-700 Next Generation

On June 23, the airline welcomed its first Boeing 737-700 Next Generation, which differs from the base Boeing 737 model with a new wing and tail design, a digital cockpit, more advanced engines and comfortable passenger seats. The new bright interior of the aircraft can accommodate 149 passengers. The Boeing 737-700 can operate flights up to seven hours long with a full commercial load and is already involved in the airline's regular schedule in Kazakhstan, to countries of near and far abroad, as well as in tourist flights from Kazakhstan to Turkey.

Number of seats - 149

Flight range (km) - 6 230

Cruise speed (km/h) – 828

Maximum height (m) - 12 500

Crew (pilots) - 2

Boeing 737-300

The Boeing 737-300 narrow-body jet passenger aircraft is the most mass-produced and popular jet passenger aircraft in the history of the passenger aircraft industry, the result of the most successful passenger aircraft construction program, the base model of the so-called classic series of the Boeing 737 family of aircraft.

Number of seats - 144.
Flight range (km) - 4,270.
Cruise speed (km / h) - 800.
Maximum height (m) - 11 100.
Crew (pilots) - 2.

Boeing 737-500

The Boeing 737-500 passenger aircraft is a medium-haul passenger aircraft operated on short and medium haul routes. The aircraft complies with all modern world requirements for flight safety and environmental parameters.

Number of seats - 118.
Flight range (km) - 4,400.
Cruise speed (km / h) - 800.
Maximum height (m) - 11,600.
Crew (pilots) - 2.

Bombardier CRJ-200

Regional narrow-body passenger jet aircraft CRJ-200 has improved operational characteristics, is capable of flying in difficult meteorological conditions and in high-altitude airfields. The fifty-seat comfortable cabin is equipped with comfortable leather armchairs, which allows passengers to travel in comfort.

Number of seats - 50.
Flight range (km) - 3,950.
Cruising speed (km / h) - 790.
Maximum height (m) - 12,500.
Crew (pilots) - 2.

Safety

Safety measures mean a set of technical and organizational measures aimed at creating safe working conditions and preventing accidents at work.

In order to ensure labor protection, the enterprise takes measures to ensure that the work of employees is safe, and large funds are allocated for the implementation of these goals. The factories have a special security service subordinate to the chief engineer of the factory, which develops measures that should provide the worker with safe conditions works, monitoring the state of safety at work and making sure that all workers entering the enterprise are trained in safe working methods.

As part of ensuring labor protection at the enterprise, the plants systematically take measures to reduce injuries and eliminate the possibility of accidents. These activities are mainly as follows:

Improving the design of existing equipment in order to protect workers from injury;

· installation of new and improvement of the design of existing protective devices for machine tools, machines and heating installations, eliminating the possibility of injury; improvement of working conditions: ensuring sufficient illumination, good ventilation, dust extraction from processing sites, timely removal of production waste, maintaining normal temperatures in workshops, workplaces and at heat-emitting units;

elimination of the possibility of accidents during the operation of equipment, rupture of grinding wheels, breakage of rapidly rotating saw blades, splashing of acids, explosion of vessels and lines operating under high pressure, ejection of flames or molten metals and salts from heating devices, sudden switching on of electrical installations, damage electric shock etc.;

organized familiarization of all applicants with the rules of conduct on the territory of the enterprise and the basic safety rules, systematic training and testing of knowledge of working rules safe work;

Providing employees with safety instructions, and work areas with posters that clearly show dangerous places in the workplace and measures to prevent accidents.

Maintenance and repair (MRO, TORO -maintenance and repair support)- a set of operations to maintain the operability or serviceability of production equipment when used for its intended purpose, waiting, storing and transporting.

Carrying out general work on the aircraft:

1. Aviation work is carried out on the basis of an agreement between the civil aircraft operator and the customer.

2. The list of aviation works and requirements for their implementation are established by the Basic Rules for Flights in the Airspace of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Seasonal maintenance:

Seasonal Service aviation technology

With regard to civil aviation aircraft, the following types are established Maintenance: operational, periodic, seasonal, special, in storage.

Seasonal maintenance is carried out 2 times a year during the transition to operation in the autumn-winter and spring-summer periods. Modern types of aircraft, as a rule, do not require large labor costs to perform seasonal maintenance, so it is carried out in conjunction with another form of periodic maintenance. Seasonal maintenance includes fault detection and full restoration of protective coatings, elimination of minor damage and corrosion on airframe and landing gear parts, adjustment of cable wire tension, checking the performance of anti-icing systems and icing alarms, fault finding and repair of covers and plugs, and other work.

With the help of miniature geolocators attached to the legs of 11 arctic terns, it was possible to trace the routes of the annual flights of these birds, which spend the northern summer in the Arctic, and the southern summer in the Antarctic. The study confirmed the title of champions for the range of migrations for terns. They fly up to 80,000 km per year - twice as much as expected. In their 30-year lifespan, terns cover a distance equal to three flights to the moon and back.

Seasonal migrations of birds are traditionally studied through banding and observations along the migration route. These methods make it possible to find out the migration paths only in the most general terms. A real revolution in this area began with the advent of compact electronic geolocators - devices that allow you to track the movements of individual birds. Until very recently, these studies were limited to large species (weighing over 400 g), and only in recent years has it become possible to make very tiny geolocators that do not burden even small birds, such as the Arctic tern, weighing about 125 g.

The interest of researchers in this bird is due to the fact that it has long been considered the greatest traveler among all living beings. The Arctic tern is the only bird species that breeds in the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in the Arctic, and spends the winter in the Antarctic. According to rough estimates obtained using traditional methods, it turned out that terns fly about 40,000 km per year.

To find out the real routes and range of flights of Arctic terns, a group of ornithologists from Denmark, Poland, Great Britain and Iceland used subminiature 1.5 gram geolocators. Together with a plastic ring that was worn on the bird's leg and to which the device was attached, the device weighed only 2 grams - less than 2% of the weight of an adult tern.

The birds were caught during the breeding season, in June–July 2007, at two locations: on Sand Island off the northeast coast of Greenland (74°43'N, 20°27'W) and on Flatey Island in Breidafjorde in western Iceland (65°22'N 22°27'W). In total, 70 birds were supplied with geolocators: 50 Greenlandic and 20 Icelandic. The following summer, at the same points, the authors tried to catch ringed birds. In Greenland, they counted 21 birds with geolocators, but managed to catch only 10. In Iceland, they saw 4 ringed birds, of which they managed to catch one. This does not mean that the rest of the birds died along the way. Terns return at the beginning of summer to approximately the same area from which they left in autumn, but not necessarily to the same point. A couple of hundred kilometers is no distance at all for terns, unlike birdwatchers who traveled around northeast Greenland on dog sleds provided to them by the Greenland Sledge Patrol (see The Sirius Sledge Patrol).

Geolocators recorded changes in illumination in real time throughout the year. From these data, it is possible to determine the time of sunrise and sunset and the length of the day, which in most cases makes it possible to calculate the geographic position of the bird with an accuracy of 170–200 km. Difficulties arise only when the birds are at very high latitudes (polar day), and also during the equinoxes, when the length of the day is the same at all latitudes and only longitude can be determined from light data.

It turned out that terns fly south in autumn slowly, with two long stops, and the route of the Icelandic bird did not stand out from the rest. The birds left their breeding grounds in mid-August and soon reached their first stopping place in the North Atlantic east of Newfoundland. Here the terns spent from 10 to 30 days. In this area, northern highly productive waters mix with southern, warmer and less productive ones. The Icelandic tern moved further south on 1 September, the bowheads followed on 5–22 September. Off the west coast of Africa, the routes diverged: seven birds continued along Africa, and four crossed the Atlantic and headed south along the coast of Brazil. Both groups of birds lingered for a short time at 38–40 degrees south latitude. Of the seven birds that took the African route, three flew as far east as the Indian Ocean. All birds arrived at their winter quarters - the edge of the Antarctic ice - between 5 and 30 November. The entire journey to the south took from 69 to 103 days, the average migration speed was 330 km per day.

The birds spent most of the Antarctic summer in the Weddell Sea region, where Antarctic krill are abundant. The tern from Iceland set off on the return journey to the north on April 3, the Greenland ones on April 12–19. Now they flew faster, without long stops and away from the coast, almost over the middle of the Atlantic. The duration of the flight to the nesting sites was 36–46 days, the average speed was 520 km per day.

The study showed that previous estimates of the total distance flown by terns per year were halved. Actually these amazing birds overcome from 59,500 to 81,600 km per year (average 71,000), excluding movements during the nesting period. Since terns live for over 30 years (the official record is 34 years), they can fly about two and a half million kilometers in their lifetime. This corresponds to three flights to the moon and back, or 60 orbits around the equator.

The range and duration of the flight are among the main flight performance characteristics of the aircraft, they depend on many factors: speed, altitude, aircraft drag, fuel supply, specific gravity of the fuel, engine mode, ambient temperature, wind speed and direction, etc. Great value for the range and duration of the flight has the quality of maintenance of the aircraft, including the adjustment of the command-fuel units of the engines.

Practical range- this is the distance flown by an aircraft when performing a specific flight task with a predetermined amount of fuel and the balance of air navigation reserve (ANZ) fuel at the landing.

Practical duration is the flight time from takeoff to landing for a specific flight task with a predetermined amount of fuel and the remaining ANZ on landing.

The bulk of the fuel transport aircraft consumes in level flight.

Flight range is determined by the formula

where G t FP is the fuel consumed in level flight, kg; C km - kilometer fuel consumption, kg / km.

G t HP = G t full = ( G t roll. vzl + G t nab + G t lower +…);

where C h– hourly fuel consumption, kg/h; V– true flight speed, km/h.

Flight duration is determined by the formula

where G t – fuel reserve, kg.

Let us consider the effect of various operational factors on the range and duration of the flight.

Aircraft weight. In flight, due to fuel burnup, the aircraft weight can decrease by 30–40%, therefore, the required engine operation mode to maintain a given speed and hourly and kilometer fuel consumption are reduced.

A heavy aircraft flies at a higher angle of attack, so its drag is greater than that of a light aircraft that flies at the same speed at a lower angle of attack. Thus, we can conclude that a heavy aircraft requires large engine operating modes, and as you know, with an increase in engine operating mode, hourly and kilometer fuel consumption increases. During the flight at V= const due to the decrease in the mass of the aircraft, the kilometer fuel consumption is continuously decreasing.

Airspeed. As speed increases, fuel consumption increases. With a minimum kilometer fuel consumption, the maximum flight range is:

Speed ​​corresponding FROM km min is called cruising.

The nomogram below (Fig. 3.7) shows the fuel consumption per hour for one engine.

Rice. 3.7. Fuel consumption depending on the power setting in percent

The estimated fuel quantities displayed in the FUEL CALC field on the G1000 Multifunction Display (MFD) do not take into account the readings from the aircraft's fuel gauges.

The displayed values ​​are calculated from the last current value the amount of fuel entered by the pilot and the actual fuel consumption. For this reason, flight duration and range data can only be used for reference purposes; their use for flight planning is prohibited.

The flight speed at which the hourly fuel consumption is minimal is called the maximum duration speed:

Wind speed and direction. Wind does not affect hourly fuel consumption and flight duration. Hourly fuel consumption is determined by the operating mode of the engines, the flight weight of the aircraft and the aerodynamic quality of the aircraft:

C h = P C oud, or

where R- required traction FROM sp - specific fuel consumption, m is the mass of the aircraft, To- aerodynamic quality of the aircraft.

The flight range depends on the strength and direction of the wind, as it changes the ground speed relative to the ground:

where U- wind component (tailwind - with a "+" sign, counter - with a "-" sign).

With a headwind, the kilometer fuel consumption increases, and the range decreases.

Flight altitude. With the same flight weight, with an increase in flight altitude, hourly and kilometer fuel consumption decrease due to a decrease in specific fuel consumption.

Outside temperature. With an increase in air temperature, the power of the power plants at a constant engine operation decreases, and the flight speed decreases. Therefore, in order to restore the set speed at the same height in conditions of elevated temperature, it is necessary to increase the operating mode of the engines. This leads to an increase in the specific and hourly fuel consumption in proportion to the temperature. On average, when the temperature deviates from the standard by 5°, the hourly fuel consumption changes by 1%. Kilometer fuel consumption practically does not depend on temperature: , that is, the flight range with increasing outdoor temperature remains practically constant.

Maintenance.With competent technical and flight operation of engines, the range and duration of the aircraft flight increase. So, for example, the correct adjustment of the engines, as well as the installation of the engine control levers in accordance with the economic flight mode, leads to an increase in the range and duration of the flight.