The beginning of typography is associated with activity. Typography in Russia is the first book printer and the publication of the first printed book. The advent of movable type

04.05.2021

At the end of the 15th and in the 16th century, despite the strengthening of autocratic-serf tendencies in the country and the dominance of the church-scholastic worldview, Russian culture, uniting the cultural heritage of previously divided lands, embarked on the path of new successes and was drawn into the general channel of the advanced culture of its era.

One of the greatest achievements of the middle of the XVI century. typography appeared. It was prepared by the general rise in handicraft production, the presence of extensive experience in the creation of handwritten books, as well as cultural communication with other European states.

The first printing house arose in Moscow in 1553, and soon ecclesiastical books were printed here. Among the earliest printed books are the Lent of Triodion, published around 1553, and two gospels printed in the 50s of the 16th century. These books, in terms of their external data and production technique, are close to contemporary Serbian, Moldavian and Venetian editions, which indicates the cultural ties of the Russian state with the South Slavic countries, as well as with Italy, which was a major center of book printing.

In 1563, Ivan Fedorov, an outstanding figure in the field of book printing in Russia, was entrusted with the organization of the "sovereign's Printing House". Together with his assistant Peter Mstislavets, on March 1, 1564, he published the book "Apostle", and the following year "The Clockworker". Books created in the printing house of Ivan Fedorov were distinguished by excellent execution technique and high artistry of ornamentation.

The activity of Ivan Fedorov, which contributed to the development of enlightenment, was met with hostility in the reactionary circles of the boyars and the clergy. The persecution of the Russian printing pioneer that began on their part forced him to leave Russia. He continued his work first in Belarus, in the city of Zabludovo, then in Ukraine. The last period of his life he was in Lvov, where he died in 1584.

Ivan Fedorov's twenty-year labors in the field of printing were not limited to the publication of liturgical books for the needs of the church cult. Satisfying the needs of the nobility and the urban population in the first place in education, he sought to publish the books necessary for a complete course of study. It was supposed to begin with the study of the primer, published by him in Lvov in 1574. This book consisted of the alphabet and texts for reading and memorizing.

The activities of Ivan Fedorov outside the Russian state, in Belarus and Ukraine, contributed to the strengthening of the cultural ties of the Russian people with Ukrainian and Belarusian. The great "drukar Muscovite" Pian Fedorov was the founder of Ukrainian book printing.

With the departure of Ivan Fedorov from Moscow, printing there, despite the resistance of the reactionary forces, did not stop. During the second half of the XVI century. Russian printers published about 20 books, while the "Apostle" of 1597 was printed in a large circulation for that time - 1050 copies. Books published in the center of the Russian state found readers throughout the country.

Introduction

The purpose of this work is to consider the emergence and development of printing in Russia in the period from the XVI century. to the 18th century, the influence of the printed book on the development of the entire state, on the relationship with manuscripts, etc.

At the moment of the development of society, the technique of printing books has only improved, but the traditions laid down then have remained to this day. Now books are one of the main sources of knowledge. Then they were actually the only one. Therefore, this topic always remains relevant, as it is still in demand.

This work is based on the work of I.E. Barenbaum "History of the book". This work describes the history of the development of printing in the most detailed and accessible way. There are basic facts and arguments, causes and consequences of the emergence of the printed book.

The history of the book academic discipline studies the history of handwritten and printed books, topics and types of books, their origin and development, methods of distribution and perception (reading), in connection with the history of printing houses and publishing houses. The history of the book also studies the conditions of the social existence of the book, the legal regime.

Based on the general history, the history of culture, science and technology, the history of the book studies the facts and patterns of development of handwritten and printed books, their role at different stages of human civilization. This reveals the public purpose of the book, its main functions as an instrument of ideology, scientific, technical and cultural progress.

Also, the work of E.I. Katsprzhak "History of writing and books" (M., 1955), in which a significant part was devoted to the development of Russian books. We also used other works.

Chapter 1. The Beginning of Printing and the Printed Book in the 16th Century

Reasons for the introduction of printing in the Muscovite state

In the middle of the XVI century. book printing penetrates the Muscovite state. The introduction of printing in Moscow is the result of the socio-economic development of the feudal society of Russia in the 16th century. The development of production and handicrafts created the necessary technical prerequisites for the establishment of a printing house in Moscow and the transition from the handwritten method of reproducing books to a more perfect and productive - book printing.

In political terms, the introduction of printing in Moscow was one of those state events that Ivan the Terrible carried out in the 50s and 60s. 16th century in order to strengthen the autocracy (reform of the court, the creation of a streltsy army, labial and zemstvo institutions, etc.).

In the afterword to the Apostle of 1564 - one of the main sources on the history of early Moscow book printing - two reasons are indicated that prompted Ivan the Terrible to introduce book printing in Moscow: the need for a large number of church books for newly built churches in Moscow and other cities, especially in the city Kazan "and within it", and the need to correct "corrupted" books.

In Kazan, conquered in 1552, the government of Ivan IV forcibly introduced Christianity among the Tatars and encouraged those who were baptized in every possible way. To satisfy the increased demand for church literature, Ivan the Terrible ordered the purchase of holy books at the auction "and in the holy churches to believe." But then another difficulty arose - most of the books turned out to be unusable, were distorted by "ignorant and unreasonable" scribes, and contained various errors. The "corruption" of books gave rise to heresies, led to religious free-thinking.

The issue of correcting church books was raised at the Stoglav Sobor of the highest spiritual and secular dignitaries, convened by Ivan IV and Metropolitan Macarius in 1551 to discuss the necessary reforms in state and church administration. The Council decided to introduce strict spiritual censorship and confiscate faulty manuscripts. However, it was difficult to exercise control over the rewriting of books, which was carried out in many places in the Russian state. This control could be ensured only with a centralized method of reproduction of books. Typography caused a functional demarcation between printed and handwritten books: “The first was fixed for a long time to serve the needs of the church, the second remained a reliable custodian and quick distributor of the repertoire of non-church reading. Therefore, it was the handwritten book that was used for the then intensive propaganda of the activities of Ivan the Terrible, to glorify his personality, to prove the origin of Russian absolutism from “August Caesar”, the Roman emperor himself (1st century AD). There is no evidence that speaks of attempts, even of a plan, to print such monuments of official historiography and journalism as the Power Book, the Tale of the Princes of Vladimir, the Kazan History and many others.

From the middle of the XVI century. the government of Ivan IV began to find funds and people for the development of typographic art. Attempts to start book printing in Moscow with the help of foreigners were unsuccessful. This does not mean that while mastering the difficult art of typography, developing an original, original typesetting technology, the Russian first printers were not familiar with the art of typography that existed in many European countries, including the Slavic countries. Both in the field of printing technology and in the artistic design of the first Russian printed books, foreign influence is noticeable. According to Ivan Fedorov, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich "began to think about how to present printed books, as if in Greek, in Venice, and in Phrygia and in other languages." The enlightened writer-publicist Maxim Grek could acquaint our book printers with the experience of publishing abroad. Studying at the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. in Italy, he was close to the then famous publisher Aldu Manutius. In 1518, at the request of Vasily III, he came to Russia to correct translations of church books. In Moscow, he brought with him samples of publications from the Alda printing house. Russian book printers were, of course, also aware of other printed books created both in Western and Yugoslav countries. They were able to creatively, taking into account the national traditions inherent in Russian book art, rethink the experience of others, and in a number of cases introduced something new into the printing technique.

Anonymous printing house and hopeless publications

The beginning of book printing in Moscow, as established by a number of studies, dates back to the mid-1950s. 16th century

There is a known group of anonymous, or inaccessible editions (three Gospels, two Psalters and two Triodies), which were printed in Moscow in the period between 1553-1564, i.e. before the first Russian dated printed book Apostol appeared. They do not contain imprint data - the time and place of publication, the name of the printer. The printing technique is not perfect. There is no line justification, causing the right vertical edge of the set to be jagged. The techniques of two-color printing in two colors - black and red, which were traditionally used by the masters of an anonymous printing house, are peculiar. The graphics of the fonts reproduce the features of the Moscow semi-ustav of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. To date a group of anonymous books and determine the place of publication is helped by the study of paper, printing technology, as well as insert notes in a number of copies dating back to the late 50s - early 60s. 16th century The name of the printer is unknown. There are suggestions that a certain Marusha Nefediev was involved in their publication, whom Ivan IV in his letters to Novgorod in 1556 mentions as a “master of printed books”. Nefediev was instructed to "inspect" the stone for the construction of a temple in Moscow. Judging by the letters, Marusha Nefediev was a skilled engraver, as was the Novgorod master Vasyuk Nikiforov, who was also mentioned in one of the mentioned letters of Grozny. Some researchers (A.A. Sidorov, E.L. Nemirovskii) associate the activities of the anonymous printing house with the Chosen Rada of Ivan IV, Adashev and the enlightened priest Sylvester, who, as already noted, had a large manuscript workshop in Moscow.

The study of anonymous publications suggests that back in the mid-50s. 16th century in Moscow, a whole group of talented Russian craftsmen worked on mastering book printing. The first place among them rightfully belongs to the great Russian pioneer printer and educator Ivan Fedorov, a multi-talented person, a talented artist, engraver, progressive publicist, ideological fighter and patriot.

Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. Moscow period of activity

Documentary information about the childhood and youthful years of Ivan Fedorov's life has not been preserved. It is known only from the afterword to the Apostle that he was a deacon of the Church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin. There is no information about where and from whom the Russian first printer studied typographic art. He may have worked for an anonymous printer. This is evidenced by the similarity of some printing techniques used in Moscow's hopeless publications and in books published in Moscow by Ivan Fedorov. The only documents from which we learn about the activities of Ivan Fedorov in Moscow are the afterwords to the Moscow and Lvov editions of the Apostle, the first Russian printed dated book.

Apostle was printed whole year April 19, 1563 to March 1, 1564. The last date is celebrated as the beginning of book printing in Russia.

The Apostle of 1564 is an outstanding work of Russian early printing art. In terms of printing technique, quality of typesetting and design, the Apostle is much higher than anonymous editions. The book is printed in black and red ink. The technology of two-color printing resembles the techniques of anonymous printing. But Fedorov also brings something new. For the first time, he uses double-roll printing from one form in our country. He also uses the method of double-roll printing from two typesetting forms (found in Triodi lenten), as was done in all European printing houses.

The Moscow Apostle is provided with a large frontispiece engraving depicting the Evangelist Luke. The figure of Luka, distinguished by its realistic interpretation and compositional elegance, is inserted into an artistically executed frame, which Ivan Fedorov later used to decorate his other publications. The book has many elegant headpieces, engraved initials (letters), 24 lines of ligature. The apostle ends with an afterword, which tells about the establishment of a printing house in Moscow, glorifies Metropolitan Macarius and the "pious" Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, whose command "begin to seek the mastery of printed books." Written, obviously, by Ivan Fedorov himself, the afterword is secular in nature and testifies to the undoubted literary talent of the author.

The apostle was edited by the pioneer printers (apparently with the participation of Metropolitan Macarius and other enlightened figures from Ivan IV's entourage). The spelling and language of the Apostle were improved, freed from archaisms and non-Slavic expressions and phrases. This wonderful creation by Ivan Fedorov served as an unsurpassed model for generations of Russian printers for many years.

In 1565 Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets published two editions of the Chasovnik. The educational nature and small format of the Clockwork explains the exceptional rarity of this edition. The book was read quickly and decayed. The chapel was preserved in single copies, and even then mainly in foreign book depositories. Both editions of the Clockwork are printed in the same font as the Apostle. However, the overall printing performance of the Clockwork is lower than the Apostle. This is apparently explained by the haste.

Shortly after the publication of the Chasovnik, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets were forced to leave Moscow. It is known that Ivan Fedorov was persecuted in Moscow for his activities. The mention in the afterword to the Lvov Apostle of “many accusations of heresy” that were raised by ill-wishers against the first printers suggests that one of the main reasons for the persecution of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets was their critical attitude to the text of the liturgical books they printed, their “freethinking”. Obviously, the first printers had the opportunity to prepare for departure. They took with them a lot of printing materials (matrices, punches, carved boards).

After leaving Moscow, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets went to Lithuania. They stopped at the Zabludovo estate (near Bialystok), which belonged to Hetman Grigory Alexandrovich Khodkevich, an ardent supporter of the political autonomy of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a zealot of the Orthodox faith for the Belarusian population of Lithuanian lands. Khodkevich offered Ivan Fedorov to print Russian Orthodox books in order to preserve the national identity of the Russian-Belarusian population, who fought against forced Polonization and Catholicism, for their native language and national dignity.

The first book printed by Moscow masters in Zabludovo was the Teaching Gospel, published on March 17, 1569. This book was already significantly different in design from Moscow editions. It has a title page and a preface written by Chodkiewicz. On the back of the title page - the coat of arms of G.A. Khodkevich. The fonts and screensavers are the same as in the Moscow editions.

After the Gospel was printed, Mstislavets parted ways with Ivan Fedorov and moved to Vilna. The reasons that prompted him to leave are unknown to us. In Vilna, Mstislavets continued to print books.

The second zabludovsky edition was the Psalter with the Book of Hours, printed from September 26, 1569 to March 23, 1570. This is one of the best editions of Ivan Fedorov, printed by himself without the help of Mstislavets. The book is decorated with a frontispiece - a portrait of King David, made by engraving on wood. The Psalter with the Book of Hours is a very rare early printed edition. Only three defective copies of this book have survived.

In 1569, the Union of Lublin was concluded and the unification of Lithuania and Poland took place. Not wanting to take risks, and also experiencing financial difficulties, Hetman Khodkevich refused to continue the political struggle and suggested that Ivan Fyodorov close the printing house and start farming on the estate presented to him. However, the tempting offer did not seduce the Moscow book printer.

Ivan Fedorov left Zabludovo and at the end of 1572 moved to Lvov, the largest economic and cultural center of Western Ukraine at that time. With great difficulty, with the help of craft people, Ivan Fedorov collected the necessary amount to purchase a printing house. It was equipped on the outskirts of Lvov, called Podzamchie. The printer was assisted by his son Ivan, who had learned bookbinding, and his apprentice Grin. On February 15, 1574, Ivan Fedorov issued a new edition of the Apostle in Lvov. Outwardly, it repeated the Moscow edition. The frontispiece image of Luke is printed, however, from a new board. The frame is still old. On the back of the first sheet there is the coat of arms of Hetman Khodkevich, and at the end of the book, next to the coat of arms of the city of Lvov, there is a typographical stamp of Ivan Fedorov.

The afterword of the Lvov Apostle is a wonderful biographical narrative, an excellent example of Russian literary creativity of the 16th century. and at the same time a most valuable document for studying the history of Russian printing. The exact circulation of the Apostle is unknown, only 97 copies have been preserved. books.

In 1954-1955. it became known that in Lvov the Moscow pioneer printed one of his most remarkable editions - the first Russian printed "ABC". The only known surviving copy of the ABC was acquired in Rome in 1927 by a prominent theatrical and artistic figure S.P. Diaghilev, but until 1954 the scientific community was not aware of this. The book has 78 pages, decorated with artistically executed small format headpieces. It does not have a title page. The text is typed in Moscow type by Ivan Fedorov. At the end of the book - the coat of arms of the city of Lvov and the publishing mark of Ivan Fedorov. This edition of Ivan Fedorov served as a model for many Russian "primers" printed in subsequent decades.

In Lvov, Ivan Fedorov experienced severe material deprivation and financial difficulties. He even had to turn to the services of moneylenders. At this time, he received an invitation to set up a printing house on the estate of Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky, one of the most influential supporters of Orthodoxy and the richest landowners of Southwestern Russia. In an effort to resist the influence of Catholic propaganda, which intensified after the conclusion of the Union of Lublin in 1569, Prince Ostrozhsky decided to use printing in a language understandable to the Ukrainian population. In his family estate in Ostroh (in Volyn), Prince Ostrogsky was engaged in educational activities. He was assisted by prominent figures of Ukrainian culture, headed by Gerasim Smotrytsky, who formed a scientific circle called the Ostroh Academy. It was in this circle that the idea arose to translate from Greek and publish the Bible in Slavonic. During 1575-1576. Ivan Fedorov, by appointment of Prince Ostrogsky, performed the duties of the steward of the Dermansky Monastery. During these years, the printing house of Ivan Fedorov did not work. Intensive preparations were made for the publication of the Bible. Ostrogsky made it his goal to publish a new verified and edited text of the Bible. It took several years to search for and verify various versions and editions of the Bible. A copy of the famous Gennadiev manuscript, a copy of which was received from Moscow with the permission of Ivan IV, was taken as a sample. In 1580, Ivan Fedorov published the New Testament with the Psalter. In the preface, the book is characterized as "the first vegetable from the printed house ... Ostrozhsky." The importance of typography is emphasized: “Moreover, at the present time, in the midst of the kind of obstinate and depraved.”

It has been suggested that in Ostrog, in addition to the indicated editions, a new edition of the ABC was printed in the printing house of Ivan Fedorov (and possibly several). This was evidenced by the study of a copy of the "ABC" stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen and provided, unlike the Lviv "ABC" with the title: "The Beginning of Teaching to Children." The Ostroh printing house also produced two primers, which are stored (one copy each) in the libraries of Cambridge and Oxford. As it became known in 1968, the only complete copy of the ABC was found in the library of Gotha (GDR), printed in the Ostroh printing house on June 18, 1578. Thus, this is the first book in time that came out of the printing house of Ivan Fedorov in Ostrog . The book is printed in six different fonts, including two Greek. On the reverse of the title page is the coat of arms of Prince Ostrozhsky. There is also a typographical mark of Ivan Fedorov. On the title page - the title and explanation of the purpose of the publication.

It is said that Prince Ostrozhsky invited knowledgeable people to teach children - "skillful" in Greek, Latin and especially in Russian. “And sowing for the sake of guilt this book was printed in the Greek alphabet, and in the Russian alphabet. First, for the sake of teaching the childish, the sinful John Fedorovich ... "

Sometimes it is considered as a separate edition woven into the "Psalter and the New Testament" a small reference and subject index called "The book is a collection of things that are most necessary ...", compiled by Timofei Mikhailovich, a member of the Ostroh circle. The Book... has a separate title page, dated 1580, on the back of which there is the coat of arms of Prince Ostrozhsky.

May 1581 from the Ostroh printing house of Ivan Fedorov came out (without indicating the name of the printer) "Chronology" of the Belarusian Calvinist poet Andrei Rymsha. This is a large format single sheet; couplets for each month of the year are printed on two pages - a kind of poetic calendar.

The famous Ostroh Bible was a true masterpiece of Ivan Fedorov's typographic art. Although there are two versions of the title pages with the imprint - one shows the date July 12, 1580, the other - August 12, 1581, nevertheless, as experts suggest, only one edition of the Bible was issued. The difference in output data is explained by the complexity of the work - multiple corrections, re-editing, violation of the sequence in typing and printing of individual parts.

The Ostroh Bible impresses with its volume. It contains 628 sheets or 1256 pages, printed in two columns in beautiful compact printing in six different fonts (including two Greek ones). Many masterfully executed headpieces and capital letters. The title page of the Bible is framed by a frame in which the image of Luke was enclosed in the Moscow Apostle. The book is provided with the coat of arms of Prince Ostrozhsky and the typographic mark of Ivan Fedorov. In the preface, on behalf of Prince Ostrogsky, it is said about the connection of the work begun in Ostrog with Moscow, with the entire historical past of the Russian people.

The circulation of the book is approximately 1000-1200 copies. About 250 copies have survived to our time. And this is understandable - a book of large volume and format, treated with great care. Nevertheless, most of the circulation - about 1000 copies. - did not reach us. The rarity of the book was noted already in the 17th century. in the preface to the Moscow Bible of 1663. An outstanding Czech scholar of the 18th century. Josef Dobrovsky admitted: "I would give half of my library for the Ostroh Bible." At present, the discovery of each new copy of the Ostroh Bible is an event of great cultural significance, naturally attracting wide public attention. One of them was discovered by the author in 1971. in the funds of the Khabarovsk Scientific Library.

The first Cyrillic edition of the Bible, carried out by Ivan Fedorov, served as a model for its subsequent Russian editions.

Having printed the Bible, Ivan Fedorov, for reasons not sufficiently clarified, broke up with Prince Ostrozhsky and returned at the beginning of 1583 to Lvov. There, with great difficulty, he manages to equip a printing house and start typing a new book. However, he didn't have to release it. By this time, a number of inventions by Ivan 2aedorov in cannon business (including the original multi-barrel gun) date back. However, the Moscow master failed to realize them. Burdened with worries and numerous debts, Ivan Fedorov fell ill and died on December 5 (15), 1583.

Ivan Fedorov played an outstanding role in the history of Russian books. His printing press served to enlighten the Russian people. The activities of Ivan Fedorov were deeply patriotic and, in the broad sense of the word, enlightening in nature. By planting book printing in Moscow, Belarus and Ukraine, Ivan Fedorov made an invaluable contribution to the development of the culture and social life of the fraternal Slavic peoples, contributed to their rapprochement and national independence. The traits of high citizenship and enlightenment inherent in Fedorov's book publishing activities have become the hallmarks of advanced Russian book printing and publishing, which has carefully preserved and multiplied the glorious traditions of the great Russian pioneer printer.

Book printing in Moscow after the departure of Ivan Fedorov. His successors - Andronik Nevezha and Nikifor Tarasiev

After the departure of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets to Lithuania, book printing in Moscow did not stop. The work of Ivan Fedorov was continued by his students - the talented master of printing art Andronik Timofeev Nevezha and Nikifor Tarasiev. In 1567-1568. in Moscow, they equipped a printing house, from which in 1568 the first "post-Fyodorov" Russian edition of the Psalter came out. In the design of the book, the influence of the ornamentation of Ivan Fedorov is very noticeable. But new features also appear, in particular, greater decorativeness and relief of the initials.

During the fire of Moscow in 1571, the Printing Yard burned down. Ivan the Terrible instructed Andronik Nevezha to set up a printing house in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. Here, in 1577, another edition of the Psalter was published, from the point of view of printing and design, less interesting than the Moscow one. In Alexandrovskaya Sloboda, according to information given by the famous Russian bibliographer of the 18th century. D.E. Semyonov-Rudnev, secular books were published. He mentions, in particular, two books on the foreign policy of Ivan IV, which, unfortunately, have not come down to us.

After a 12-year break, in 1589, in Moscow, Andronik Nevezha released the Lenten Triod. Andronik Nevezha headed the Moscow printing house until 1602. Then his son, Ivan Andronikov Nevezhin, became its head.

In the XVI century. 17 printed books were published in the Moscow state, their circulation did not exceed 1000 copies. The most complete early printed Russian editions are presented in the State Public Library named after M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Leningrad) and in the State Library of the USSR named after V.I. Lenin in Moscow. Of scientific interest is also the collection of the first editions of the Moscow press of the State Historical Museum (Moscow).

Despite the fact that the rewriting of books by the end of the XV century. turned into a real manufactory production, the handwritten method of reproduction of books was not productive enough and too laborious, and therefore could not satisfy the growing demand for books.

The introduction of printing, in fact, was one of the state events that in the 50-60s. 16th century conducted by Ivan the Terrible. In the afterword to the "Apostle" of 1564, which is one of the main sources on the history of the beginning of printing in Moscow, several reasons for this are indicated. One of them is the need for a large number of church books for newly built churches in Moscow and other cities. Especially many books were required in connection with the introduction of Christianity in Kazan conquered in 1552. Ivan the Terrible ordered to buy holy books at the auction "and in the holy churches to believe." But it turned out that most of the books are unusable - they were distorted by "ignorant and unreasonable" scribes and contain errors, which contributes to the generation of heresies. Therefore, the second important reason was the need to correct "corrupted" books and create correct books. This question was raised at the Stoglavy Cathedral, which decided to confiscate uncorrected manuscripts and conduct censorship. But it was difficult to exercise control over the rewriting of books, which was carried out in many cities and churches of the Russian state. Control could be exercised only with a centralized method of reproduction of books. Printing was thus fixed to serve the needs of the church. Handwritten books from the middle of the XVI century. and in the 17th century they served the purposes of storing and disseminating non-church reading.

From the middle of the XVI century. the government of Ivan the Terrible begins to search for funds and people to organize book printing. In Russia, by this time, the works of Western European book printing were already known - for example, samples of the publications of the Italian Alda Manutius back in the first quarter of the 16th century. Maxim Grek brought with him. Other printed books were also known.

The appearance of the first printed books in the Slavic languages is associated with the name of Schweipolt Fiol, who in 1491 in Krakow printed the books Oktoih, Book of Hours, Colored Triode and Lenten Triod in Cyrillic (both Triodi were published anonymously, without output information). The first accurately dated book in the Slavic language "Apostle" was published in Vilna in 1525 by the Belarusian pioneer and educator Francis Skorina, who founded his own printing house there.

The beginning of book printing in Moscow dates back to the middle of the 16th century. There is a group of anonymous publications printed at that time - these are the Gospels, Psalms, etc. The books are printed in two colors - black and red, the graphics of the fonts reproduce semi-usual. They do not have output data - time, place, name of the publisher, and they date back to 1553-1564 according to paper, technology, and records preserved in them. The technique of printing these books is very imperfect.

The establishment of a centralized printing business in Russia is associated with the name of Ivan Fedorov, a deacon of one of the churches of the Moscow Kremlin. The first Russian dated printed book is the Apostle, which was printed from April 19, 1563 to March 1, 1564.

In terms of printing technique, quality of typesetting and design, this book is far superior to anonymous editions. "Apostle" is printed in two colors - black and red, for the first time the technique of two-roll printing from one form was used. In addition, in Russian printed editions of the XVI-XVII centuries. the method of double-roll printing from two typesetting forms, adopted in all Western European printing houses, was also used. On the frontispiece of the "Apostle" is an engraving depicting the Evangelist Luke. The book has many elegant headpieces, engraved initials, 24 lines of tie. The afterword tells about the creation of a printing house in Moscow, glorifies Metropolitan Macarius and Ivan IV. The apostle has been edited, spelling and language have been improved.

In 1565, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published two editions of The Clockwork. The educational nature and small format of this publication led to the fact that the book was quickly read out, it deteriorated, and, thus, single copies were preserved, mainly in foreign book collections. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets left Moscow because of accusations of heresy, having managed, however, to take with them matrices, punches, and carved boards. First, they went to Lithuania, where, under the auspices of Hetman G. A. Khodkevich, they continued to print Russian books (the coat of arms of Khodkevich was placed on the back of the title of these books). In Lithuania in 1569 they published the Gospel (which had a title page with a foreword by Khodkevich) and a Psalter with a Book of Hours, which is a very rare edition - three defective copies of this book have survived. In 1572 Ivan Fedorov moved to Lvov and equipped a printing house. In 1574 a new edition of the Apostle was made there. In addition, in Lvov, Ivan Fedorov produced the first "ABC" - the only known surviving copy of it was bought in 1927 by S. P. Diaghilev in Rome. The book has 78 pages, decorated with headpieces. The text is typed in Moscow type by Ivan Fedorov. This edition became a model for Russian alphabets printed in the next decade. Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky invited Ivan Fedorov from Lvov to print the Bible in the Slavic language. It took several years to find and verify various versions of the Bible. In the same place, in Ostrog, Ivan Fedorov published another "ABC" with the title "The Beginning of Teaching to Children" (a copy of such an alphabet is stored in the Royal Library in Copenagen) and two primers (stored in the libraries of Cambridge and Oxford). The Ostroh Bible came out in 1580-1581. It consisted of 628 sheets (1256 pages), printed in two columns in six different fonts. It has a lot of screensavers and capital letters. The circulation of the Bible was 1000-1200 copies, about 250 copies have survived. It was a luxurious large-format book, handled with care.

After the departure of Ivan Fedorov from Moscow, other masters continued his work. In 1567-1568 Andronik Nevezha and Nikifor Tarasiev equipped a printing house in Moscow, in which in 1568 the Psalter was published. In 1571, during a fire in Moscow, the entire Printing Yard burned down. The printing house was equipped in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. Secular books were also printed there.

According to the latest data, in Moscow in the second half of the XVI century. nineteen editions were issued; their circulation, as a rule, did not exceed 1200 copies, although modern researchers suggest that the circulation of the first printed "Apostle" was more than 2000 copies, and the "Apostle" issued by Ivan Fedorov in Lvov (1574) was at least 3000. The largest collections of early printed Russian books are kept in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg, in the Russian State Library and the State Historical Museum in Moscow. The first printed (old printed) Russian books include all dated editions of Ivan Fedorov, his closest students and associates, as well as books of the Moscow "anonymous" printing house (1553-1556). The nature of the design and materials of early printed and early printed Russian books are directly related to the system of designing manuscript books of the 11th-16th centuries. Further development of book printing in Russia in the 17th century. contributed to the emergence of a large number of printed books, which are gradually beginning to replace handwritten editions, which, however, in the 17th century were produced quite a lot.

The beginning of book printing is included in a number of outstanding events not only in the history of Russian culture, but in general in the history of our country.

The emergence of book printing in Moscow in the 16th century met the needs of the centralized Russian state, which significantly expanded its territory after the successful campaigns of Ivan IV (the Terrible) against Kazan and Astrakhan. Orthodox churches were built in the newly acquired vast lands; there was a need for a large number of church books. Manuscripts were created by scribes slowly and with a large number of errors and inconsistencies.

Publications printed in the state printing house had identically edited texts, which were more in line with an important political task than handwritten books.

For a long time it was believed that the first who became the founders of our book printing was Ivan Fedorov, deacon of the Church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky in Moscow, who published the book "Apostle" in 1564.

But already in the second half of the 19th century, Russian researchers, and above all Alexei Viktorov, suggested that before Ivan Fedorov, books were already being printed in Moscow in the so-called anonymous printing house. Soviet historical science proved the fact that such a printing press operated in Moscow from 1553 to 1564. The work began modestly, the publications did not indicate where and when this or that book was published. Therefore, this name arose - Anonymous Printing House. There are seven "hopeless" editions - three Four Gospels, two Psalters. Lenten Triode and Color Triode. These books were published in large editions, this is evidenced by a fairly serious number of copies that have survived to this day. The significance of the Anonymous Printing House, in addition to the very first printed books, was that Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets took their first steps in it, who were destined to become innovators, pioneers who led Moscow onto a wide book road.

Ivan Fedorov chose the Apostle, which had existed in Russia since the 12th century, as the first book for printing. For a long time, it was believed that Ivan Fedorov was simply a skilled craftsman, an executor of the orders of Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Metropolitan Macarius. It seems that Fedorov simply took a commonly used manuscript and printed it.

Recent research has established that translation was undertaken before the book was typed; then careful editing took place, the text was corrected and even insertions were made, the origin of which is still not entirely clear to scientists. The printed "Apostle" more than numerous handwritten lists corresponded to the norms of the spoken language that sounded in Moscow in the days of Ivan the Terrible.

Unlike many European countries that professed Catholicism, not national languages were used in book printing, but Latin. Often this limited the social impact of printing, since the broad masses of the people were still poorly familiar with the Latin language.

Undoubtedly, the emergence of typography in Moscow was influenced by the earlier development of this sphere in neighboring countries - and above all in Lithuania (Belarus), where the great Belarusian first printer Francis Skorina worked.
The "Apostle" by Ivan Fedorov absorbed the achievements of the culture of all previous times, starting with the appearance of the alphabet on the Kiev horizon, the cultural features of Novgorod, Moscow, Rostov the Great and other lands of all Russia.

Imagine that we took the "Apostle" in our hands. Time has weathered the smell of printing ink. The book of 268 sheets at first resembles a handwritten one, especially in the visual appearance of the letters. But, looking closely, we are convinced that we have a Moscow-type typeface in front of us: each letter - you can’t look enough! Everything here is beyond praise: the engraving that opens the edition, headpieces, initials, lines of ligature. By its two-colour printing, the "Apostle" resembles a handwritten folio produced by a skilled scribe. durable glossy paper, and if you look at the pages in the light, you will see watermarks: a signet with a star and a crown, a boat, a celestial sphere. Ivan Fedorov used expensive French-made paper. The absence of misprints in The Apostle is not the result of careful reading, but the result of the philological education of Ivan Fedorov and his assistants.

The intellectual feat of the First Printer also lies in the fact that he did not limit himself to editorial and typographical work - Fedorov himself drew and engraved. He wrote an afterword to the "Apostle", in which it is reported that "by the command of the pious king" money was issued for the printing house, it is emphasized that in all great Russia temples are being built, which the autocrat decorates with "honest icons and holy books." Thus, it was made clear that the construction of a printing press was given state significance, and a book was equated with an icon and a temple.

Fedorov's afterword was supposed to inspire readers with the idea that book printing is not a private undertaking, but a matter that was approved by the highest authorities, the tsar and the metropolitan. The afterword made a great impression on Ivan Fedorov's contemporaries - they remembered him many decades later.

Ivan Fedorov and his assistants began printing the Apostle on April 19, 1563, and finished on March 1, 1564. At that time, hardly anyone understood how great an event took place in Moscow. Over a thousand identical books! The printing house replaced a thousand scribes who could not cope with such a volume of work even in a year!

And, probably, Ivan Fedorov, the First Printer, or, as he was later called, Ivan Drukar, looked farthest of all. In the southern Russian, Western Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, the printing house was called a drukaria, and the printer was called a drukaria. The nickname stuck to Ivan Fedorov.

All his life he only did what he was doing, that is, he was engaged in printing books. In general, he was a versatile master who owned many crafts. Fedorov cast guns, invented multi-barrel motors with interchangeable parts. The glory of Ivan Drukar bypassed Russia, its echoes were heard far beyond the borders of the country.

In the center of Moscow, near the Kitaigorod wall, there is a monument to the Russian pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov. On the front side of the marble pedestal, repeating in bronze the inscriptions of the first Russian letters, it is deduced: "St. Nicholas the Wonderworker of Gostunsky, deacon Ivan Fedorov." On the back side: “The first beginning of printing in Moscow…” and the date of the beginning of printing of the “Apostle” – April 19, 1563.

Anatoly Manushin
Illustration Mikhail Suprunenko

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/

Introduction
Conclusion

Introduction

A great cultural achievement was the beginning of book printing in Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. The Russian first printer was Ivan Fedorov: he was born in the 20s of the 16th century, he died on December 6, 1583 in Lvov. The construction of the first state printing house in Moscow was completed in 1563, and on March 1, 1564, the first book "The Apostle" was published here, the technical and artistic execution of which was excellent. In the future, the printing house printed several more books of religious content, then its activities were interrupted. Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets, persecuted by ecclesiastical and secular reactionaries, were forced to leave their homeland and settle outside its borders, becoming the pioneers of printing in Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.

The first failure did not stop Ivan the Terrible, and he started a new printing house in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. But printing developed relatively slowly.

Along with Ivan Fedorov, Marusha Nefediev, Nevezha Timofeev, Andronik Nevezha and his son Ivan, Anisim Radishevsky, Anikita Fofanov, Kondrat Ivanov should be named among the first Russian printers. Many of them were both engravers and type founders.

For the cultural growth of Russia, the introduction of printing was of great importance. It was more convenient to use a printed book and store it than a handwritten one, although the correspondence of books continued long time. The distribution of books opened up broader opportunities for communicating spiritual values.

1. Time and causes of book printing in Russia

The appearance of book printing in the Muscovite state coincided with the era of Ivan the Terrible. It was a time of consolidation of statehood and the final approval of the monarchical centralized state.

First of all, Grozny solved the political problems of Russia in the East. In 1552, he conquered the Kazan kingdom, and a little later Astrakhan. Huge expanses inhabited by non-Orthodox peoples came under the rule of the Moscow Tsar. Their organic inclusion in the state required Christian enlightenment, and soon the Kazan diocese appeared, which required liturgical books. It would seem that the problem could be solved by traditional hand-written production, but the printing press had already been invented in Europe.

In line with these reforms, obviously, there were introduction typography - a decisive means in the correction of church life, the destruction of heresies and self-will in the interpretation of the Holy Texts - an inevitable and typical consequence of church unrest during the creation of a new state.

Handwritten books were sold in large quantities at the markets. Who would have been able to keep track of all this mass of written material, to review all these books - each one separately - and to correct in all of them that endless mass of gross errors and slips, accidental omissions and deliberate distortions with which all these cursive books were so abundantly overflowing.

And so, when in 1553 especially many liturgical books were needed for the churches erected by the zeal of the tsar in the Kazan kingdom he conquered and other places in Russia, the tsar ordered to buy up handwritten books at the markets. Of the very significant number of books purchased, only a very few turned out to be fit for church use. Others, in the words of Maximus the Greek, were "all corrupted by those who prescribe, unlearned beings and unskillful in the mind." It is believed that it was this incident that finally led Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich to the idea of establishing book printing in Russia, although there is reason to think that even much earlier than this time, Tsar Maxim the Greek suggested the idea of establishing a printing house in Russia. The Svyatogorsk monk, who arrived in Moscow from the very center of modern European civilization, clearly understanding and highly appreciating all the advantages that book printing brought to modern European society, naturally had to ardently advocate the introduction of this new art in Russia. Typography was obviously well known to Maximus the Greek, because during his stay in Venice he was even personally acquainted with one of the most famous printers in Europe, Aldus Manutius.

Books of the Cyrillic press - Polish, Belarusian, Yugoslav - became known in Russia. Information about the work of European printers was also known to Muscovites. The learned theologian, publicist and translator Maxim Grek introduced the Russians to the activities of Aldus Manutius. The legends about the Venetian master publishers, apparently, so aroused the desire of the Moscow Tsar to be no worse than the "fryagi", that information about this fell into the afterword of the "Apostle" in 1564. The Tsar strove to look no worse than foreigners (Grozny was the first crowned king, the first of Russian tsars began to openly expose his person as the universal king - the heir to Rome and Byzantium) and demanded to conduct educational work.

Metropolitan Macarius, the most prominent cultural figure of that time, belonged to the supporters of book printing. But there were also many opponents. A large detachment of book scribes was worried about the prospect of losing their earnings, some boyars were afraid of weakening their political influence and strengthening the authority of the tsarist government and the church, among the clergy they feared the spread of "heretical ideas" among the people. However, the tsar and the supporters of printing paid little attention to the opposition. The church was in dire need of liturgical books, the demand for which could not be met by scribes. Especially - in the huge, recently annexed Kazan side. In addition, there were many errors, various insertions and absurdities in the handwritten liturgical books. It was necessary to clear them of inconsistencies and replace them with printed books.

The beginning of book printing in Moscow dates back to the middle of the 16th century. There is a known group of anonymous publications printed at that time - these are the Gospels, Psalms, etc. The books are printed in two colors - black and red, the graphics of the fonts reproduce a semi-charter. They do not have output data - time, place, name of the publisher, and they date back to 1553-1564 according to paper, technology, and records preserved in them. The technique of printing these books is very imperfect.

The establishment of a centralized printing business in Russia is associated with the name of Ivan Fedorov, a deacon of one of the churches of the Moscow Kremlin. The first Russian dated printed book - Apostle, which was printed from April 19, 1563 to March 1, 1564.

Release time" Apostle"in history it is considered to be the beginning of Russian book printing.

2. Ivan Fedorov and his "Apostle"

Fedorov Ivan Fedorovich - the founder of Russian book printing in Russia and Ukraine. He studied at the University in Krakow. In his youth (1530-1550) he lived and worked in Ukraine, was known as a cannon master (he invented a multi-barreled mortar). Presumably, it was there that he learned about the printing business.

Upon arrival in Moscow, Ivan Fedorov was surrounded by Metropolitan Macarius. In Moscow, Ivan received the position of deacon in the church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky in the Kremlin and soon took part in the work of the commission to "correct" church books (eliminate inconsistencies). The desire to start publishing books in the capital was caused by an urgent need to establish discrepancies in the existing canonical literature, and to distribute verified canonical texts throughout the churches and monasteries of the country. The second reason was the desire to prevent the spread of Uniatism from the West, to put up a barrier to Catholic expansion to the East. All that was needed was a person capable of technically carrying out these tasks.

In Moscow, Ivan Fedorov quickly mastered the intricacies of typographic art in the so-called Anonymous Printing House, created a little earlier on the initiative of a number of educated Russian people of that time (Hegumen Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius, etc.). Until the mid-1550s, the first test single printed sheets, the first books (undated, without title pages, without titles) were published in it. All of them were intended for everyday worship ( printed Triode, two gospels) but no way has yet been found to produce enough copies quickly.

In 1553, by order of the tsar, the construction of the State Printing Yard on the Nikolsky Cross (now Nikolskaya Street near the Kremlin) began in the capital. With the participation of Metropolitan Macarius, in connection with the approaching opening of the printing house, they began "to seek the skill of printed books." At the request of the Russian tsar, the king of Denmark sent a printing master to Moscow, but whether this master was connected with I. Fedorov remained unknown. One way or another, but the printing house was headed not by a foreigner, but by Ivan Fedorov, who in 1563 took in 1563 as assistants certain Pyotr Timofeev, the son of Mstislavets and Marusha Nefediev.

April 19, 1563 "cunning masters of printing" Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets began work on their first book - Acts and messages saints apostles(now abbreviated as Apostle). This work lasted for about a year. On March 1, 1564, the first Moscow printed liturgical book was dated by the first state printing house in Moscow. The first printer himself did a lot of textual and editorial work on it, designed it according to all the rules of the printing art of that time. Having creatively reworked the ornamental techniques of the school of Theodosius Izograph (the leading designer of the Russian manuscript book of the early 16th century), borrowing the external design from the Russian miniature, Ivan Fedorov made in this book rich headlines for each section, colorful vignettes at the top of the pages, initial initials (at the beginning paragraphs), typed it in a semi-authoritative font, developed on the basis of a handwritten Moscow letter of the middle of the 16th century.

After Acts St.. apostles Fedorov and Mstislavets printed the Teaching Gospel, in 1565 two editions Clockmaker (Book of hours), too liturgical book containing prayers and hymns for daily church services. It began to be used as an educational book for learning to read.

The attitude to the innovation provoked a protest from a significant group of clerics. handwritten creation Apostle usually began after prayers and ablutions; the soulless printing press was perceived by them as something unclean. In addition, new trends in the book business provoked a protest from the scribe monks (their work became unprofitable, the machine made it possible to print books faster and cheaper). The printers were accused of spreading heresy. Since the main defender of Ivan Fedorov - Metropolitan Macarius died in 1563, the first printers were left without patronage. In 1566, a fire broke out in their printing house (possibly the result of arson), and they decided to urgently leave the capital of Muscovy. "Envy and hatred of us from the land and fatherland and from our family were expelled to other countries, hitherto unknown," I. Fedorov later wrote.

The first printers fled to Lithuania, taking with them 35 engraved boards. Being warmly received by the Polish king Sigismund, Ivan Fedorov found refuge with the Polish hetman Khodkevich, a philanthropist and educator, who founded a printing house in his estate Zabludov (not far from Grodno in the Bialystok Voivodeship). The first book printed in the Zabludovsky printing house by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets was teaching Gospel(1568), called Zabludovsky. In 1569, Peter Mstislavets left for Vilna, where he started his own printing house, and Ivan Fedorov continued to work in Zabludovo, publishing Psalter with watchbook (1570).

Printing was a costly business. When Khodkevich, who had become impoverished by the beginning of the 1570s, was unable to provide financial support to book publishing, Ivan Fedorov decided to leave for Lvov. Here, in 1573, the "Moscow printer" organized his own printing house and in 1574 managed to republish Apostle in the amount of more than 1000 copies, attaching his own afterword to the publication. Thus, he laid the foundation for book printing in Ukraine. In the same year, in Lvov, he published the first Russian printed primer with grammar - ABC, according to him - "for the benefit of the Russian people." (Single copy ABCs I. Fedorova discovered in 1939, now located in the United States in the library of Harvard University).

Soon Ivan Fedorov took advantage of the offer of one of the very well-born princes of the Commonwealth - Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky - to set up a new printing house in the main city of his possessions - Ostrog in Volhynia. Around 1578, on the initiative of this prince, the "Ostroh Academy of the Seven Free Sciences" was opened there, in which the Church Slavonic language was also taught. At the suggestion and with the support of Prince Ivan Fedorov, in 1578-1581 he published a second edition here. ABCs, printed New covenant with Psalter. Here Ivan Fedorov published the famous Ostrozhskaya Bible- the first complete Bible in the Church Slavonic language. Printed in large, new for that time font, on 628 sheets, it was a masterpiece of technical execution and artistic taste (about 300 of its copies have survived to this day). Ivan Fedorov's boards with the font he developed for this book were kept by his followers for a long time after his death, and some of them were in working order for almost 200 years.

December 5, 1583 I. Fedorov died. He was buried in Lvov in the St. Onufrievsky Monastery. In 1977, the Ivanov Fedorov Museum was opened here. In 1990, the monastery fell into the hands of the Basilian monks, who liquidated this museum. The famous master died in complete poverty. All property went to pay off numerous debts. A tombstone was placed on the grave of the great son of the Russian land. Carved in its center book sign printer. Below is the inscription: "Drukar of books previously unseen."

To date, twelve printed editions of Ivan Fedorov are known - monuments of Russian typographic art. The fonts cast by Fedorov are perfectly readable, headpieces, endings, capital letters are distinguished by amazing subtlety of work (miniatures of the Evangelist Luke, psalmist David, coats of arms of Hetman Khodkevich, Prince Ostrozhsky, the city of Lvov). All of them are accompanied by the publishing mark of the first printer himself - the initials "IF". Distinctive feature Fedorov's books - the presence in them of the author's prefaces and afterwords written by a living spoken language on behalf of the printer. They contain the history of the creation of his books, biographical information about the author-publisher.

In 1909, in the center of Moscow, where the Sovereign's printing house was located in the 16th century, a monument to Ivan Fedorov was erected (sculptor S.M. Volnukhin)

typography Fedorov Apostle Russia

3. Further development of printing in Russia

Printing in Moscow developed after Ivan Fedorov. In the capital, the first printer left his students Nicephorus Tarasiev and Andronika Timofeeva I don't know. In 1567-1568. they revived the Moscow printing house, from which in 1568 the first post-Fyodorov edition, the Psalter, came out. In 1571, a fire destroyed the Printing Yard. In 1577, on behalf of Ivan the Terrible, a printing house was organized in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, where they also produced Psalter. After a long break in 1589, the Printing Yard began to work again in Moscow, where Andronik Nevezha published Triode lean. In total, in the 16th century, 19 publications were issued on the territory of the Moscow state, the average circulation of which was 1000-1200 copies. The main result of the work of the masters of the 16th century is the organization of a large printing house of the European type on the state basis of the Moscow Printing Yard, which until 1602 was led by the master Andronik Nevezha.

In 1634, the first Russian primer was published in the Moscow Printing Yard, the main printing center in Russia. It was generally one of the first printed books not of a church, but of a civil content. This primer (a manual for teaching literacy) was compiled by the patriarchal clerk Vasily Burtsov. The full title of this book was: "The primer of the Slovenian language, that is, the beginning of teaching for children." Burtsov's primer was supplied with engravings and was published in several editions in the 17th century.

With the further development of printing and paper production improved stitching and binding processes. Cords and threads began to be used to fasten blocks instead of veins and skin; The wooden sides of the binding covers were replaced with cardboard ones. However, all operations for the manufacture of the block and the binding cover were still performed by one master manually. The content of the books is also changing. Along with books of ecclesiastical content, secular ones appear, intended for civil use.

The development of the printing press had a major impact on technological process book making. The book ceases to be a jewel, and bookbinding becomes a craft. Large workshops for the production of books appeared, which made it possible to significantly increase the circulation of issued publications, the nature of block processing changed and the design of bindings was simplified. In the 17th century composite bindings with leather spines and corners began to be made. The cardboard sides of such bindings were pasted over with colored paper or cloth. By this time, the emergence of a new type of publication - brochures. For the first time, brochure-type publications began to be produced in France. Brochures in the XVII-XVIII centuries. called small-sized works of small format, stitched and unbound. Usually pamphlets were written on topical issues and were issued in a short time. Pamphlets played a big role in the bourgeois revolutions in England and France. In fact, the brochure in those days replaced the newspaper and magazine and was their direct predecessor.

The development of capitalism in all countries had a decisive influence on the further development and improvement of printing technology. Machines were invented that mechanized individual technological operations of both typesetting, printing, and stitching and binding processes. In 1840, a cardboard cutter was used to cut cardboard. In 1870, the wire stitcher was invented, and in 1877, the sewing machine.

With the introduction of machines into production, a division of labor occurs, which makes it possible to improve the technological process and increase labor productivity.

On September 3, 2014, the postage stamp "450 Years of Printing in Russia" was put into circulation. The postage stamp shows a spread of the book "Apostle" of 1564, stored in the State Public Historical Library of Russia, against the background of Cyrillic letters. An art cover will be prepared for the release, inside - four postage stamps, a FDC with cancellation (Moscow)

Printing in Russia has become a powerful tool for the dissemination of knowledge and education. That is why the beginning of book printing is one of the largest events in the history of the culture of our country, and Ivan Fedorov is an outstanding figure in Russian culture.

Conclusion

The emergence of book printing in Russia, of course, was not the result of the initiative of individuals. It was a direct consequence of the political and cultural development of Russia. But there were also special reasons that prompted Ivan IV and Metropolitan Macarius to begin work on the creation of a printing business in Russia precisely in 1553. These reasons, and moreover, are set out with great clarity in the first printed Apostle. It speaks of a great need for books for new churches that were created in Moscow and other cities, most of all (“more so”) in the newly conquered Kazan and within its borders.

The policy of the government of Ivan IV in the "newly enlightened" city of Kazan was aimed at suppressing the Kazan feudal lords. One of the means for this was the forced Christianization of the Kazan Tatars. After the capture of Kazan, mosques and mausoleums were destroyed in it. Unbaptized Tatars were evicted outside the fortress to a special Tatar settlement. The newly founded Kazan archdiocese became the center of the Christianization of the Kazan kingdom, which met with great resistance from the Muslims. In the royal order, the first Kazan archbishop Gury was ordered to encourage the Tatars who were baptized in every possible way. The archbishop was supposed to invite the newly baptized to "eat often", give them kvass to drink and send them honey to drink in the yard where they stopped, a Tatar who committed some crime, but wanted to be baptized, could find refuge with the archbishop, etc. .d.

The apostle of 1564 speaks of the distribution of early printed books in the area of the Kazan kingdom. This evidence is confirmed by the scribe books of Sviyazhsk 1565-1567. In the Dormition Sviyazhsky Monastery at that time there was "a gospel printed at ten on paper. five psalms at noon printed." Here one of the hopeless gospels and five copies of the hopeless Psalter are mentioned, which were sent to the borders of the "newly enlightened" Kazan kingdom. The printed hopeless gospels known to us, indeed, had the format of a sheet, "ten", and the Psalter - in four, "noon". Both editions, as we see, were issued before 1565.

Hosted on Allbest.ru

...

The beginning of typography is associated with activity. Typography in Russia is the first book printer and the publication of the first printed book. The advent of movable type

Chapter 1. The Beginning of Printing and the Printed Book in the 16th Century

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Introduction

The first failure did not stop Ivan the Terrible, and he started a new printing house in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. But printing developed relatively slowly.

Along with Ivan Fedorov, Marusha Nefediev, Nevezha Timofeev, Andronik Nevezha and his son Ivan, Anisim Radishevsky, Anikita Fofanov, Kondrat Ivanov should be named among the first Russian printers. Many of them were both engravers and type founders.

1. Time and causes of book printing in Russia

The appearance of book printing in the Muscovite state coincided with the era of Ivan the Terrible. It was a time of consolidation of statehood and the final approval of the monarchical centralized state.

The establishment of a centralized printing business in Russia is associated with the name of Ivan Fedorov, a deacon of one of the churches of the Moscow Kremlin. The first Russian dated printed book - Apostle, which was printed from April 19, 1563 to March 1, 1564.

Release time" Apostle"in history it is considered to be the beginning of Russian book printing.

2. Ivan Fedorov and his "Apostle"

After Acts St.. apostles Fedorov and Mstislavets printed the Teaching Gospel, in 1565 two editions Clockmaker (Book of hours), too liturgical book containing prayers and hymns for daily church services. It began to be used as an educational book for learning to read.

In 1909, in the center of Moscow, where the Sovereign's printing house was located in the 16th century, a monument to Ivan Fedorov was erected (sculptor S.M. Volnukhin)

3. Further development of printing in Russia

With the introduction of machines into production, a division of labor occurs, which makes it possible to improve the technological process and increase labor productivity.

Printing in Russia has become a powerful tool for the dissemination of knowledge and education. That is why the beginning of book printing is one of the largest events in the history of the culture of our country, and Ivan Fedorov is an outstanding figure in Russian culture.

Conclusion

Similar Documents