world economy and finance
1.2. The evolution of managerial thought: from macromanagement to micromanagement, management
Macromanagement - publiccontrol,
Micromanagement is the management of a corporation,
enterprise, organization.
Until the XIX-XX centuries. management thought in
mainly developed and improved
like macro control.
Names and written monuments by which one can judge the evolution of public administration:
The book "Teachings of Ptahhotep" (Ancient Egypt, XX century BC),Solomon (Israel, X century BC),
Confucius (China, VI-V centuries BC),
The treatise "Arthashastra" by Kautilya (Ancient India, VI-III centuries BC),
Code of laws of Hammurabi (Ancient Babylon, XVIII century BC),
Nebuchadnezzar II (Ancient Babylon, 605-562 BC),
Socrates ( Ancient Greece, (469-399 BC),
Plato (427-347 BC),
Xenophon (430-354 BC)
Diocletian (Roman Empire, 243–316),
Niccolo Macivelli (Italy, 1469–1527),
Peter I (Russia, 1672–1725),
Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov (Russia, 1652–1726),
Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (Russia, 1772–1839),
Adam Smith (Great Britain, 1723–1790)
Robert Owen (Scotland, 1771–1858)
Sergei Yulievich Witte (Russia, 1849–1915),
Max Weber (Germany, 1864–1920). Along with understanding
state administration was
development of management practice
military, religious,
construction, economic
processes. The first management issues were
solve the ancient Egyptians.
They understood the need
purposeful organization of people
planning, monitoring results.
It was related to the construction
pyramids where labor was used
many people. Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792)
-1750s BC) created a code of laws
government, developed
own leadership style
set legal standards
determination of the minimum wage
fees. Assyrian king Nebuchadnezzar II
(604-562 BC) developed and successfully
used the control system
textile companies and
granaries. Her instrument was
colored labels to mark
daily receipts of a batch of raw materials. This is
allowed to define and control
terms of their stay in production or on
stock. An invaluable source for the study of managerial life in
Ancient Palestine is the Bible, which is reflected in
mythological form of the life story of the ancient Jews and other
the peoples of Palestine (about the 15th century BC). special significance
The Bible in terms of highlighting the ideas of management is not limited to
presentation of ideas about management, formed on
relatively small Israeli-Jewish territories.
The Bible advocated clear organization and hierarchy
governance of the country. The highest level in this scheme was to
constitute the supreme power, it defines the main
requirements for the king, exercising supreme control
country.
First, the king had to represent the indigenous population
countries.
Secondly, the inadmissibility of the king's self-interest was noted,
using his power for personal gain.
Thirdly, high moral standards were presented to the king.
requirements. In management, the Bible especially valued wisdom,
reasonableness and reasonableness.
In defending the interests of the people, the Bible sharply condemned
abuse of power and fought against the use
managerial truths for personal enrichment, developed
the idea of incompatibility of management with taking bribes,
illegal gifts, bribery, embezzlement.
Putting God at the center of everything and believing that all power
from God, the Bible is more decisive than many ancient sources
demanded the unquestioning obedience of the governed
manager, sought the authority of power, managerial
discipline, strict compliance with the will of subordinates,
instructions, instructions of those who have power, who govern,
who makes decisions and directs the actions of people. Chinese scientist San Tsu in his
The Art of War (500 B.C.)
BC) showed the need
hierarchical structure of the organization
personnel planning, organization
interpersonal relationships. important to the history of economic thought
the ancient Chinese teachings of Confucius (Kung Fu Tzu) (551-479 BC)
BC e.). Confucius believed that work increases wealth and
people, and the sovereign, is supported by the peasant community and
patriarchal family.
Regulation of patriarchal-family relations -
basis for the stability of society. The government should
care about the even distribution of wealth,
regulation of agricultural work, restrictions
taxes and the moral improvement of people. ethical
the norms proclaimed by Confucius contributed to
strengthening the patriarchal family and the clan of relatives, and together
with that and the social system of China. ancient greek philosopher
Socrates (469-399 BC) gives
understanding of management
special sphere of human
activities. He
reviewing the responsibilities
good industrialist,
merchant, military leader,
showed that they are
are the same.
The main task is
to put the right
person to the right place and
get him to comply
their instructions.
So Socrates
formulated the idea of
universal character
management. Plato (424-347 BC)
is the creator of the model
ideal state. In dialogues
"State" and "Laws" he
seeks to eliminate class struggle and
wealth inequality through
clear division of public
functions of citizens in accordance with their
Abilities: Philosophers and Warriors
form the administration
landowners, artisans and
merchants are busy in the economy, slaves
do hard work. Private
property is condemned, everything
belongs to the state, everything
personal property in excess of
minimum, state
takes away. Freedom of the citizens sharply
limited, the laws are harsh. Family -
under the control of the state, which
determines marriages and the birth of children.
In fact, Plato created a model
states of the primitive
communism. This is one of the first
utopias. Ancient Greek philosopher Plato
(427-347 BC) for the first time in history
expressed scientific ideas about separation
labor. He noted that a person
worth working on at the same time
stone, and iron, and wood, because
he can't succeed everywhere
opportunities. Aristotle (384-322 BC) -
the greatest thinker of antiquity,
trying to explore
economic laws of modern
him Greece. in Politics and
"Nicomachean Ethics" he reviewed
structure of the state, defining
family as its basis.
The essence of the state is the desire to
the common good. It should
overcome class
opposites, navigate
per "average" citizen, i.e.
slave farmer. He
defended the interests of natural
slave economy.
Phenomena associated with it
natural and attributed them to
economy, i.e. art
acquisition of goods, consumer
costs. Slavery was considered
natural even outstanding
philosophers such as Aristotle,
and the slave is a speaking instrument. When considering management perspectives
ancient thinkers first of all need
pay attention to the difference between the ancient
economy from the Asian.
If Asiatic society was domineering
(despotic), then the ancient was
democratic, albeit slave-owning. AT
ancient economy is much more important,
than in Asia, had private property and
commodity-money relations. In ancient times, many thinkers
trying to answer the question:
moves people, makes them active? Late Middle Ages
presented exclusively
interesting work by Niccolo
Machiavelli (1469-1527), his
main works - "The Sovereign",
"Discourse on Titus Livy". In them
the author analyzes the style
leadership, relationships
leaders and subordinates.
Worldview N. Machiavelli
formed under the conditions
feudal fragmentation
Italy, the main reason for which
he considered the absence of a strong
centralized power.
Therefore, the main
theory concept
government
became strong
unlimited power,
based on
absolute submission.
For many years it was not accepted and
criticized. However, in the XX century. to the reflections of N. Machiavelli, a new,
heightened interest, his work was in demand, including
including management specialists. His works have become
regarded as sources of the ideas that constituted the original
practical management system.
There are five principles of Machiavelli, which
influenced the development of management:
1) the authority, or power of the leader, is rooted in
the support of supporters;
2) subordinates should know what they can expect
from their leader and understand what he expects from them;
3) the leader must have the will to survive;
4) a leader is always a model of wisdom and justice
for their supporters;
5) the principle of unity of power. Italian political
thinker Niccolò Machiavelli
in his book Discourses (1513)
defended the principle of unity of power:
“It is better to trust the expedition to one
a person of ordinary ability than
two people, even if they have
outstanding qualities and
equal ability." Machiavelli's contribution to history, theory and practice
management is huge. He was one of the first to justify
concept of civil society and applied the term
"state" in modern meaning- for
designations of the political organization of society. AT
to some extent Machiavelli is
founder of theories of power and leadership, and
also decision theory.
Machiavelli's authority is cited by theorists
bureaucracy (M. Weber, R. Michels), corruption
(A. Bonadeo), political leadership and prestige
power (S. Huntington), “post-industrial society” and
political forecasting (D. Bell, G. Kahn, E. Wiener),
on his ideas formed many scientific
areas (sociology, political science, elites and
pl. etc.).
Undoubtedly, the figure of Machiavelli occupies an important
place in the history of management thought. In the XV-XVII centuries. Europe has undergone profound changes. They were associated with
revolution in the public consciousness and the initial accumulation of capital,
constituted the prehistory of capitalism.
Criticism of feudalism was directed primarily against the Catholic
churches. Reformation theorists (Martin Luther, John Calvin) used ideas
early Christianity to justify bourgeois entrepreneurship.
The Reformation formed an economic ethic that was different from the ethics of
Catholic Christianity.
What are these new norms of human behavior and the nature of the relationship between them?
These are honesty, moderation, thrift, foresight; perform well
their work and grow rich due to this, expenses should never exceed income;
money should always be in circulation and generate income; avoid questionable
transactions and unjustified risk, basing the case on a sober calculation.
Formed new type business man -
active, enterprising, thrifty,
prudent in choosing partners, but bold and
willing to take reasonable risks.
The ideology of the Reformation contributed to the formation
Protestantism, which largely predetermined the foundations
modern capitalism and scientific management of the USA and
Western Europe. Mercantilism is one of the first scientific
economic worldviews, the main
whose representatives were William Stafford
(1554–1612), Thomas Man (1571–1641), Antoine de
Montchretien (1575–1621).
Mercantilism is an economic policy
aimed at building strong
centralized states that
provide national commercial capital
favorable conditions for its development through
inflow of money from abroad.
The ideology of mercantilism: the essence of wealth
express precious metals; labor is productive
only in those industries that work on
export; the state should encourage export,
secure monopolies for domestic merchants and
prevent competition; population growth is needed
to keep low wages and
high level profit rates. The Englishman Thomas Hobbes (in 1651) and his
compatriot James Stewart (in
1767) proved that the main motive
human behavior is
just in pursuit of power. Another English Jeremiah
Bentham's Introduction to the Principles
morality and legislation" believed
that human motives are
benefit and satisfaction. The great English economist Adam
Smith in his study on
the nature and causes of the wealth of nations"
(1776) formulated the idea
"economic man", the main
the purpose of which is to strive for
enrichment and satisfaction of personal
needs. Further research
question raised in the Middle Ages
showed that only enrichment
about 12% of people aspire, and to fame
- almost 40%. So, in parallel with understanding
state administration was developing
management practices of the military, religious,
construction and business processes.
However, as a coherent system of knowledge and
management skills began to take shape only
in the 19th century, and the final formation of science
occurred in the twentieth century during the allocation
managers (managers) into an independent
social stratum and transformation into
ruling class. Since the 19th century, practical
experiments in the field of management.
They helped determine:
norms of production and remuneration;
optimal speed of equipment operation;
output volumes;
improve the organization
production and labor. English entrepreneur Richard
Arkwright (1780), inventor
spinning machine, suggested ideas
coordinating the work of machines and personnel,
equipment placement planning,
enforcement of discipline (introduction
penalties). One of the first authors
scientific management can
recognize the great humanist
and reformer Robert
Owen (1771-1856).
English scientist and
manager of several
textile factories
Robert Owen in Address
to managers
manufactories" (1813)
put forward the idea that
leaders should
pay as much attention
"living machines"
(employees), how much
"inanimate machines". In 1800-1828. Owen successfully held a major
social experiment to provide workers with
comfortable housing, improvement of working conditions, life and
recreation, creation of a network of shops for employees,
selling essential goods
affordable prices.
It was not just charity, but brought
economic effect - increased productivity
labor. Owen is the first in the world to apply factory methods
moral incentive.
By tying ribbons of different colors to the machines:
red - to the leaders, green - fulfilling the norm,
yellow - lagging behind, he achieved without raising wages
boards without introducing technical improvements and without
resorting to threats that the norms were exceeded
almost all workers (almost all machines
were red ribbons. Owen's experiments on
practice worked out the idea of social
partnership, which has become widely
to be introduced in the West after one and a half
centuries.
But she was ahead of her time.
so much so that it was rejected
society in the early nineteenth century. and betrayed
oblivion. American Eli Whitney, famous
as the inventor of the cotton gin
machine and conveyor (1820) on
practice implemented his idea
standardization, quality control and
substantiated the rule of governance. An important step in the development
theory and practice of management
made the inventor of the first
computer
Charles Babbage (1792-1871).
In the book "On saving
materials and equipment"
(1828) he formulated
separation concept
physical and mental
labor, compiled a list
good points
specialization, studied costs
working hours for various
operations, developed
premium payment system
labor. C. Babbage became an essential figure in
management much earlier than Frederick
Taylor. Being mostly technical
oriented manager, like all of his
contemporaries, C. Babbage created and applied
a number of technological innovations that helped
human effort. As a result, he took
worthy place in the history of research
operations and management science. He developed and
applied a scientific approach to management
long before the era of scientific management in
America.
Scientific production of Ch. Babbage
phenomenal. He demonstrated the first
world automatic calculator, its
"differentiating machine" in 1822 -
predecessor of digital computing
cars. In the concept of computer Ch. Babbage
had all the basic elements of modern
models. He had a stock or a device
memory, arithmetic unit, external
memory keeper and conditional converters.
Ch. Babbage created game programs for
your computer, which became
predecessors of modern gaming
business methods. Ch. Babbage's computer is not
became a commercial reality. Over a hundred years
the concept of Ch. Babbage's computer remained
unclaimed, waiting for the development of electronic
technology.
differentiating
C. Babbage's car Andrew Ure (1778-1851) -
English chemist and economist
in the book Philosophy
factories "(1835) substantiated
idea of mechanization
production, opened
Benefits
interchangeability of parts and
scale effect
production.
He showed for the first time that
conditions for the growth of a large
industry going on
further deepening
division of labor, division
production process on
components,
conditional application
science in production.
1.2. Western historical schools and scientific management approaches in the 20th century.
Scientific schools:1. Rationalist school (school of scientific
management) - 1885-1920.
2. Administrative (classical) school -1900
-1950s
3. School of Human Relations - 1930-1950
4. Behavioral concepts - 1950-1988 APPROACHES
process
(second decade of the twentieth
century)
Systemic
(mid-twentieth century)
Quantitative
(1950s)
situational
(60s of the XX century)
Content of the approach
The founder of the direction A. Fayol. According to the approach,
control is represented as a continuous
process or cycle. Its foundation is
main functions: planning, organization,
motivation and control.
Views the organization as an open system
interacting with the external environment. Internal
environment contains subsystem elements: subdivisions,
technologies, management levels, etc.
Associated with the development of the exact sciences. computers,
advances in mathematics, physics became actively
be used in management. Construction
virtual models for resource allocation,
inventory management, maintenance, strategic
planning, etc.
Proponents of the approach recommend choosing
management methods taking into account the situation and factors
environment. The more efficient method is the one that
the prevailing circumstances.
The main factors influencing the formation and development of scientific schools of management of the twentieth century.
dominantfactors of the first half
twentieth century
Scientific orientation
schools
Department of management from
property
Growth of large organizations
Development of human sciences
Development of the exact sciences
Market approval
relations
Patterns and
construction principles
organizations
Division of labor,
functions and responsibilities Dominant factors II
half of the twentieth century - early
Orientation of scientific schools
revolutionary change in
technology
Complexity and knowledge intensity
products
Globalization of production and
markets
Information Technology
Variety of consumer
demand
Growing development uncertainty and
risky investments
System approach to management
organizational capacity and
culture
Behaviorism
Marketing
Reengineering
Internal market concept
Theory of institutions and
institutional changes
Alliance theory
The priority of social goals and
development
I. Rationalist School (School of Scientific Management)
1885-1920s School representatives:F.Taylor, F.Gilbert, G.Gant, G.Emirson. American engineer,
founder of scientific
labor organization
F.Taylor (1856 - 1915)
considered the founder
scientific management.
Their views in this
areas he outlined in
books "Management
enterprise "(1903) and
"Principles of scientific
management" (1911). Scientific management developed by him in
four areas:
regulation of labor;
the role of managers;
selection and training of personnel;
reward and incentive. F. Taylor created a rigorous scientific system
management of the labor process, received
distribution in many countries until the 1970s.
The elements of this system were:
rational organization of production
process;
organization of timing of time spent on
manufacturing operations (Taylor spent dozens of
thousand experiences)
calculation of production rates;
differentiated payment system;
tight control;
maximum specialization;
close interaction between managers and workers. Taylor's views were unnecessarily
technocratic and provoked protests
from workers and entrepreneurs. He and his followers (G. Gant,
F. Gilbert, G. Emirson) are considered
rationalist
school of scientific management, basis
which made the functional
approach to the organization
regarded as something
from independent elements
(there was no comprehensive approach to
organizations). So, G. Gant considered not only
individual operations, but also labor
the process as a whole. He thought
the human factor is the main
driving force of production and
argued that the focus
should be given to the training of employees
in order to reduce time
labor. F. Gilbert studied labor operations,
using a camera and microchronometer. He
described 17 basic movements of the hand and
revealed redundant operations for this or that
other production process
(for example, for laying bricks it was
4 movements are recommended instead of the previous ones
18, which increased by 50%
labor productivity of masons). It is curious that the application of
Gilbert searched for methods in everyday life. He
discovered that for fastening
buttons on the vest from top to bottom is spent
7 sec., and from bottom to top - only 3 sec.
Using two razors at the same time
he reduced the shaving time by 44 seconds, but
lost 2 minutes bandaging
cuts. Harrington Emerson (1853-1931) by
profession was a mechanical engineer, entrepreneur.
Emerson made a huge contribution to
management development. He believed that
with proper management
labor productivity can
achieve the highest results
at the lowest cost.
Hard and hard work can
help achieve good results
only under abnormal conditions
labor. Emerson stated that
labor productivity and
voltage is very different.
concepts. If an employee is tense
works, it means that
makes the maximum possible
efforts. And to work
productive, you need to apply
the smallest effort. And
the goal of management is
minimizing effort and maximizing
results. In his book The 12 Principles
productivity "(1913) G. Emerson
revealed the main postulates, with the help of
which can be greatly improved
labor efficiency.
This work is known throughout the world.
However, when studying it, one must remember
that G. Emerson worked on his work in
another era, with a completely different
social and economic level
development of society.
G.Emirson's principles of management efficiency
G. Emerson identified 12 basic performance principles:1) Clearly set goals.
When working in a team and doing some work, it is necessary that
each person had precisely set goals and objectives. It will help
make the work coordinated and avoid various problems and malfunctions.
2) Common sense.
The leader is obliged to exclude from his work any emotions, must
study and analyze the production process only from the standpoint of sound
meaning. This will help to draw the right conclusions and develop
prospects for further action.
3) Competent advice.
We need practical and competent advice on all issues that have arisen.
during production and management. The only one really
The competent opinion is the collegial opinion.
4) Discipline and order.
All participants in the production process must comply with the order and
adhere to the established rules.
5) Fair treatment of staff.
Any manager should treat his employees fairly,
not to single out anyone, but also not to oppress anyone. 6) Accounting.
This principle allows the manager to receive all the necessary and
the most complete information about their employees and the process
production, which allows you to make quick decisions.
7) Dispatching.
Thanks to this principle, the leader is able to clearly and quickly manage
and coordinate the work of the entire workforce.
8) Norms and schedules.
Applying this principle, it is possible to highlight all the shortcomings of the production
process and minimize all the damage caused by these shortcomings.
9) Normalization of working conditions.
For the employee, such working conditions at the enterprise must be created, with
which the result of its activities will be maximum.
10) Rationing operations.
This principle establishes the required amount of time
for each operation, as well as the sequence of their execution.
11) Written standard instructions.
In production, certain
instructions and rules regarding the procedure for performing various work.
12) Reward for performance.
As part of this principle, it is established that each employee must
to reward for a job well done, then the productivity of his work
will grow steadily. At present the principles
performance improvement g.
Emerson are very successfully applied
in industrial and manufacturing
enterprises. These principles are already
years used by leading
leaders to improve
labor efficiency of employees. Limitation
rationalist school
(aimed at studying
production part) was
overcome by representatives
classical direction.
II. Administrative (classical) school
1900-1950s School representatives(A. Fayol, L. Urvik, G. Ford, P. Drucker,
M.Weber, A.K.Gastev, P.M.Kerzhentsev and
etc.).
The limitations of Taylorism were
overcome by representatives
classical direction. A. Fayol was the manager for
40 years of major mining
by the Colombo company, which
led in a period of financial collapse,
and left at a time when she
occupied a leading position in the world. The first article by A. Fayol, dedicated to
theory of administration, published in
1900, and the book "General Industrial
administration" in 1916. The object of it
interests have become the organization as a whole and
management processes. He believed that any enterprise is engaged in:
1) production;
2) commerce (purchase necessary for
production and marketing of products);
3) finances (attraction, preservation and
use of funds);
4) accounting (static observations, inventory,
balance sheet);
5) insurance (life, person and property
of people);
6) administration (influencing
subordinates).
Control functions
Every direction needsmanagement, which includes
planning processes, organization,
coordination, control, motivation. Each of these parties, according to A. Fayol,
needed to be managed according to
following 14 principles.
1. Division of labor (to increase the volume and
improving the quality of production);
2. Power - responsibility ("Power is
the right to give orders and the power to coerce
obey ... Power is not conceivable without
responsibility, i.e. without sanction - rewards or punishments,
that accompanies her actions ... Everywhere where she acts
power, and responsibility arises ... ";
3. Discipline (this is obedience, diligence, manner
keep yourself, external signs respect; her
the level depends entirely on the leader); 4. Unity of command (“An employee can
give orders to only one boss…”);
5. Unity of leadership (i.e. one leader and
one program for a set of operations,
pursuing the same goal)
6. Subordination of private interests to common ones (interests
employees should not be placed above the interests
enterprises, however, due to their difference
the manager needs to agree on them);
7. Remuneration of personnel (payment for completed
work should be fair and, if possible,
to satisfy both the employer and employees);
8. Centralization (the manager needs to find
the most favorable degree for the organization
centralization; 9. Hierarchy (i.e. a series leadership positions, starting with the lowest and
ending with the highest;
10. Order (the well-known formula of the material order:
a certain place for each thing and each thing on its own
place; the social order formula is analogous: a certain
a place for each person and each person in his place);
11. Justice (according to Fayol, this combination
benevolence with justice);
12. The constancy of the composition of the staff (“Staff turnover
is both a cause and a consequence of a bad condition
affairs. Nevertheless, changes in the composition are inevitable: age, illness,
death break composition social education… Principle
the turnover of working personnel has its own measure ...);
13. Initiative (i.e. the ability to create and implement
plan);
14. Staff unity. (“There is no need to separate personnel ...
To divide hostile forces in order to weaken them is a matter
skillful; but dividing one's own forces in an enterprise is hard
mistake); Follower of A. Fayol
was his student Lindal
Urwick (1891–1983) -
English scientist,
organizer of ideas
administrative as well as
throughout the classical school
management.
In 1946 he published a book
"Fundamentals
administration", where
put forward the principle of common
goals for all subjects
activities that
is the basis of their
cooperation.
Principles of building a formal organization by L. Urwick
1. Correspondence of people to the structure. First, you need to detaildevelop a structure, and only then “under it” select specialists, in
most appropriate to the requirements of the structure.
2. Creation of a special "general staff". Headquarters is developing
recommendations for the manager. The “general” headquarters is preparing
orders of the head and their transfer to subordinates, control of the current
work and assist the manager in coordinating activities
staff specialists. The headquarters saves the leader from trifles
administrative activities, giving him the opportunity to carry out
control over a wider range and focus on the most important
affairs.
3. Comparability of rights and responsibilities. Because responsibility
transferred to the head, he must be transferred and proportional to this
power.
4. Control range. There are a certain number of persons directly
subordinate to the leader. This is the number of persons who effectively
leader can manage. The controllability norm was determined by Urwik in
number of 5-6 people. Moreover, it was especially emphasized that the norm in each
specific case depends on individual qualities leader.
5. Specialization. There are three types of specialization in an organization.
managerial employees: on the basis of purpose; operations; consumer type, or
geographic feature.
6. Certainty. Rights, duties, responsibilities, relationships and
relationships must be defined in writing within the organization for each
positions. Henry Ford (1863-1947)
American
industrialist, owner
manufacturing plants
cars around the world,
car king
early twentieth century, was before
just an inventor and
practitioner who created
unique
production system,
based on moving
conveyor.
Author of 161 US patents. His
slogan - "car for
all"; Ford plant produced
the cheapest
cars at the beginning of the era
automotive industry.
To manage this system, Ford proposed:
introduction of standardization into the production process;strictly vertical leadership
consolidation of a number of enterprises from one center;
instruction and control of personnel;
high wages (in 1914, Ford introduced
the highest wages in the industry).
limitation working week 48 hours. (in 1918 Ford
established an 8-hour working day and mandatory
parameters of the surrounding production environment -
cleanliness, comfort and hygiene);
fostering a culture of labor relations among workers,
self-respect and respect for others;
widespread introduction of scientific knowledge (Ford discovered the first
vocational schools and schools with scholarships for
diligent and successful students); M. Weber (1864-1929) -
German sociologist, philosopher,
historian, political
economist. Weber's ideas
had a significant impact
for the development of public
sciences, especially sociology.
in business and
Management M. Weber
received the most
fame for their
bureaucracy studies.
dedicated his main
work "Theory of Society and
economic organization"
(1920) the problem of leadership and
bureaucratic structure
authorities. Bureaucracy (from French bureau - bureau,
office and Greek κράτος - domination,
power) - the direction that takes
public administration in countries where
all affairs are concentrated in the hands of the authorities
central government authority
acting on orders (bosses) and
through a prescription (to subordinates); also under
bureaucracy imply a class of persons sharply
separated from the rest of society and
composed of these representatives
central government Bureaucracy is organizational form, characteristic
for one of the three Weberian types of power:
rational-legal power is based on legality
the rules put in place;
traditional authority on the sanctity of ancient traditions;
charismatic power is based on beliefs
followers in that their leader has unique
qualities.
Definitions of these types of power can also be used in
analysis of the activities of managers as commercial
enterprises and other organizations. Since all three types
authorities are ideal, then any leader
can obtain the powers they provide on the basis of
legitimization of any combination of these types. This system was characterized by a clear division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy,
detailed rules and regulations and official duties. M. Weber admitted that
such an “ideal bureaucracy” does not exist in reality and that it is rather
selective model of the real world. The scientist put it at the basis of his theory about work and about how
how work can be done in large teams. This theory defined the structural model
for many modern large organizations. Features of an ideal bureaucratic
M. Weber's structures are as follows:
1. Division of labor. Work tasks are broken down into simple, routine and well-defined
tasks.
2. Hierarchy of power. Departments and positions are combined into a hierarchical structure in which
the work of each employee holding a lower position is managed and controlled
superior officer
3. Formal selection. All members of the organization should be selected on the basis of their qualifications,
the level of which is determined by the exam or in accordance with their experience and training
4. Formal rules and procedures. To ensure uniformity and regulate the actions
employees, managers must strictly adhere to formal organizational rules.
5. Impartiality. Rules must be followed and controls applied to all
employees equally, without any personal preferences
6. Focus on career. Managers - this official officials, but not
owners of the business units they manage. They receive a fixed
wages and move up the career ladder within your organization. P. Drucker in the book “Practice
management” (1954) determined
the exclusive role of the manager in
organization, comparing it with
orchestra conductor. “Just as a conductor must hear the whole
orchestra, the manager must keep an eye on the overall
activities of the enterprise and for the market
conjuncture. He needs to constantly review
the enterprise as a whole, but not to lose out of the woods
view of individual trees, because in certain
conditions, particular questions acquire a decisive
meaning. But the conductor has the score in front of him,
written by the composer the manager
is both a composer and
conductor." Appreciation of the role of the manager is not
prevented Drucker from putting forward the idea
self-management of the work collective,
according to which workers and employees
must elect a special body,
dealing with social
problems. However, society this idea in those
times was rejected, and now
time she is one of the foundations
social partnership. An important scientific result of the activity
classics - approach to management
organization as a continuous
process. If the rationalist
schools came first
technical aspects of work, then
organizational classics.
III. School of Human Relations (1930-1950) and its development (1950-1988)
School representatives: E. Mayo,M. Follet, R. Likert, A. Maslow and others). During the First World War
intensification of the use of physical
human capabilities in a large machine
production has been pushed to the limit.
Further performance improvement
labor on this basis is no longer
possible. There was a need for
activation of other human resources
personality. Growth of factory automation,
at which the physical costs
declining, demanded an increase
mental and psychological costs. mental activity
management is much more difficult than
physical. Research in this
famous
Elton Mayo. In the 1930s, the Hawthorne
experiments based on
American company "Western"
electrician", showed that any
organization is something
more than just a collection
people doing common tasks. She is a complex social
system where individuals or
their groups interact
principles far from formal
prescriptions. For example:
a social person has unique
needs, goals, motives;
rigid hierarchy and subordination
compatible with human nature;
productivity depends not only
from methods of organizing production,
how much of how the managers relate
to the performers. even high salary far from
always leads to growth
productivity while
how people are very responsive to
favorable moral and psychological climate and in this
case they work productively even
with a fixed salary personal and family problems of the worker
adversely affect
production efficiency;
exchange of information between people
is important, etc. Mary Follet, the first female doctor in the United States
sociology, has also written a number of papers in the field
human relations. They stated that:
hierarchical division between leaders and
subordinates artificially, the authorities must
rely on excellence in knowledge;
managers should not manipulate
subordinates (this usually causes
negative feedback), but educate them;
workers should participate in management
organization;
conflicts play a constructive role in
organizational relations (important only
allow correctly). School of Human Relations
stepped forward compared to
classics, but often its main focus
was done for the team (relatively
faceless mass of people), and not individual
personality. Therefore, later, in addition
to this school, were formed
behavioral concepts of D. McGregor and A. Maslow. In the second half of the twentieth century. in
management formed and received
widespread such
management approaches like:
process (since the end of the 50s);
systemic (since the mid-70s);
situational (80s).
IV. Process approach
was proposed by the representativesadministration who tried
describe the functions of management. Control
viewed as a process
achieving goals with the help of other people.
Management is not seen as a series
separate actions, but as a single process
impact on the organization. At the same time, the manager
is required to perform such functions as planning,
organization, motivation and control, which themselves
are processes. to permanent management
processes can be controlled
personnel, maintaining leadership in
team, coordination,
communication, evaluation of external and
the internal environment of the organization,
making decisions,
entrepreneurship and introduction
negotiations or deals.
V. System approach to management
To the advent systems approach tomanagement led the relationship and
interdependence of all parties
activities (production,
marketing, financial,
social, environmental, etc.) and
complication of external relations
organizations. According to this approach, changes
in one link of the organization inevitably
causes changes in other
units and in the organization as a whole. American explorer
C. Barnard, being for 20 years
President of the New York Bell Telephone
company”, based on the system
campaign in his works "Functions
administration" (1938) and
"Organization of management" (1948),
introduced the concept of social
corporate liability. According to it, management
must take into account the implications
decisions made and to bear for them
social responsibility and
in front of an individual. Barnard believed that
any organization is hierarchical;
all organizations (except
states and churches) are private;
Organizations can be of two types -
formal and informal
which is to maintain sustainability
formal organizations);
failures in management are associated with underestimation
moral factors. System approach to management
also adhered to D. Forrester,
developed a formal model
organizational system
industrial enterprise,
including six major
elements: raw materials, orders, cash
funds, equipment, labor
and information. The main difficulty of management
such a system, in his opinion,
is a psychological factor: term
tenure of leaders
small, and for them the staging
short-term goals are easier, but
complex systems management
only based on short-term goals
leads to deterioration in their performance. In 1956, T. Parsons, as part of
system approach put forward the idea
four principles, the implementation of which
ensures normal development
organizations:
achievements of goals;
adaptation of the organization to the external environment;
organization integration;
regulation of latent stresses; In the 1980s, the popular
theory within the systems approach
became the concept of "7S", developed
E. Athos, R. Pascal, T. Peters and
R. Waterman. "7S" are seven interconnected
variables whose names in English
language begins with the letter S:
strategy (strategy);
structure (structure);
system of management (system of management);
personnel (staff);
qualification of employees (skill);
public relations (sociality);
leadership style (style). Changes in one variable
affect the condition
the rest, so maintaining
balance between them is the main
management task.
VI. Situational approach to management
Its foundations were laid by G. Dennison,asserting that the use of different
management methods due
situation, i.e. specific set
circumstances that are currently
time has a significant effect on
organization. According to situational
approach, management is the answer to
the impact of these circumstances on
based on the knowledge and skills of managers
navigate the changing
environment. The situational approach is closely related to
concept of strategic
management, which for the first time
offered a major American
management specialist
I. Ansoff.
2.3. Russian concepts of scientific management of the XX century
Market relations in Russia onthroughout its history have been
developed very poorly, and in the period 1930-1990 they were completely absent. However, the need for guidance
activity of people exists in
under any conditions, be it the market or
command and control system
and, therefore, there are
certain general points,
which cannot be managed. First steps in management
in our country have been made for a long time
to Taylor. In the 60s of the XIX century
employees of the Moscow Higher
technical school (now MSTU im.
Bauman) developed their own
method of rationalization of labor
relations, which received the "Medal
success" at the World Trade
exhibition in Vienna in 1873. Engineer K. Adametsky in 1903 formed 4
basic laws of labor organization:
the law of increasing production, according to which
increase to a certain point in the scale of application
human and material resources costs per unit
products decrease, then increase again;
the law of specialization, which states that the division of complex labor
improves performance;
the law of coordination of production, according to which
grouping small units of production into one group
increases labor efficiency;
the law of the harmony of labor is the most important, stating that
labor costs are least when productivity
each of the cooperating units of production corresponds to
the performance of others. Later in Russia there were two
main groups of concepts
management.
The largest schools of NOT
formed in Moscow, Leningrad,
Kharkov, Kazan, Taganrog.
I. Group of organizational and technical concepts
1. The concept of organizationalmanagement A.A. Bogdanov (Malinovsky).
Economist and philosopher A.A. Bogdanov
proposed the creation of a special organizational
science, where technical organization would be
defining in relation to others
(human and ideological). His ideas included
ideas about the stability of systems, about inverse
relationships within the organization, etc. Bogdanov Alexander
Alexandrovich (1873 - 1928) Russian scientist, encyclopedist, revolutionary
activist, doctor, utopian thinker,
science fiction writer, one of
major ideologues
socialism. Member of the RSDLP in 1896-1909, Bolshevik, since 1905 member of the Central Committee.
Group organizer "Forward" and
party schools of the RSDLP in
Bologna and Capri. In 1912
retreated from active political
activities and focus
to develop their ideas for new
sciences - tectology, and "sciences about
public consciousness";
anticipated some
provisions of the systems approach and
cybernetics. In 1918-1920 the ideologist of Proletkult. Since 1926
of the year - organizer and director
the world's first institute
blood transfusions; died
making experience. 2. The concept of physiological optimum
O.A. Yermansky.
Yermansky proposed the principle
physiological optimum as a criterion
rationality of doing any work.
It was based on the relation "useful
work/energy costs”. studying
ratio statistics
leaders and performers, Yermansky
concluded that in the future everyone will become
leaders, and instead of people will be
operate automatic machines. Osip Arkadyevich Yermansky (1866-1941),
member of the Communist Academy, author
received wide in the 20-30s.
popularity of the concept of "physiological
optimum".
Review of V. I. Lenin on the book by O. A.
Yermansky "Scientific organization of labor and
Taylor system” (M., 1922): “Mr. O.A.
Yermansky wrote a very useful and very
a good book." V. I. Lenin positively
appreciated the book.
V. I. Lenin carefully got acquainted with
previous work of O. A. Yermansky
"The Taylor System" (M., 1918), which says
about sustained interest founder
proletarian state to the work of O.
Yermansky. V. I. Lenin writes: “The book gives
us a detailed description of the system
Taylor, moreover, most importantly, and her
positive and its negative
parties, as well as the main scientific
data on physiological arrival and
consumption in a human machine"
“On the whole, the book is quite good, in my opinion.
opinion, in order to be recognized
a must-have textbook for everyone
vocational schools and for all 2nd level schools
generally. Learning to work is now
main, really national
task of the Soviet Republic.
3. The concept of labor attitudes and a narrow base of Aleksey Kapitonovich Gastev.
Alexey KapitonovichGaastev (1882 -1939) Russian revolutionary,
trade unionist,
poet and writer
scientific theorist
labor organization and
supervisor
Central Institute
labor.
Member of the CPSU (b) since 1931
of the year. A.K. Gastev believed that all the work in
the field of labor organization should begin with
an individual, whoever he is,
manager or an ordinary performer.
His concept of labor installations included
includes the theory of labor movements,
organization of the workplace, methodology
rational industrial training,
which allowed to reduce the training time by 6
times - from 3-4 years to 4-6 months. He gave a number of important practical, though
a few naive, organization recommendations
production, for example:
“First think over your work thoroughly,
prepare all the necessary tools and
devices";
“do not work until you are completely tired, do
even rest; do not eat while working
drink, do not smoke - do it during your work breaks”;
“If the work doesn’t work, don’t worry, you need to do
take a break, calm down and get back to work”;
“Finished work - clean up everything to the last nail,
a workplace sweep away." Unlike Western specialists
Gastev believed that the introduction of scientific
organizations need not only
leading enterprises, but also in
"any barn", in the very
"unsettled bear corner
Russia". Another area of creativity
Gastev was the concept of a narrow base, the essence
which can be expressed in the words: "Working
who controls the machine, there is a director
company known as
machine." Control patterns, according to
According to Gastev, act in the following
order: calculation - installation - processing -
control - accounting - systematics - calculation. This
he extended the formula to control
both people and things. She formed the basis
new science of "social engineering". 4. Production interpretation of E.F. Razmirovich.
Razmirovich understood management as
kind of production process and considered
possible to rationalize, mechanize and
automate its various components with topics
the same methods as the manufacturing operations. AT
in the light of this approach, the control apparatus
regarded as a complex machine whose work
embodied in material objects: orders,
telephone messages, orders, etc.
II. Group of social concepts
1. The theory of organizational activity P.M. Kerzhentsev
Platon MikhailovichKerzhentsev (1881
-1949) - Soviet
state and
public figure,
revolutionary,
economist, journalist.
founder of the Soviet
time management schools. Under the management organization of P.M.
Kerzhentsev understood the definition
the most rational methods and
methods of doing things, such as
how to form organizational
structures, distribution of responsibilities,
planning, accounting, recruitment,
maintaining discipline. The control process is not possible, according to it
opinion, without support from
broad masses of workers. They must not
only follow the directives of the manual, but
and take the initiative. principle
management is "an agreement between
superior and inferior." Home
the task of the leader Kerzhentsev considered
the ability to “place each subordinate on
proper place."
2. Social and labor concept of production management N.A. Vitke
Vitke Nikolai Andreevich Soviet researcher in the fieldorganization of labor and management, one of
initiators of the Motov movement in 1920
- 1930s
Witke is a proponent of behavioral
organization of managerial relations.
Viewed management as a way
release of creativity
workers. Introduced into scientific circulation a series
important concepts ("human factor
production", "collective labor
activity", "social organization
enterprises", "socio-psychological atmosphere",
organizational crisis).
Ahead of E. Mayo, V. put forward
concept of "human factor in
management", expressing a number of ideas,
laid the foundation for the American
concept of human relations
large industrial enterprise
professional equipment required
managers). The main task of management
ON THE. Vitke seen in
expedient organization
people as participants in a single
labor cooperation
("management consists of
appropriate combination
human will). The essence of the work
administrator (builder
human relations)
consists in creating
work collective
favorable socio-psychological atmosphere
- "the spirit of the hive"). ON THE. Witke formulated the main
requirements for leaders: ability
select the right staff
allocate responsibilities, assign
goals, coordinate work,
exercise control, but
"Don't think you're a technical know-it-all
and do not spray yourself on "small
little things." 3. Fedor Romanovich's concept of administrative capacity
Dunayevsky.
One of the original scientific schools of that time was
Kharkov School of Management.
Issues of managerial control, collegiality and
unity of command, improvement of the organizational structure,
psychology authoritarian leadership and management styles
was engaged in the All-Ukrainian Institute of Labor (Kharkov),
whose director was a prominent specialist in methodology
acceptance management decisions Dunaevsky F.R. Under administrative capacity
F.R. Dunaevsky understood the ability
managers at the same time
manage a certain number
subordinates, regardless of their
personal qualities that in modern
management language accepted
call it the "norm of control". He explored this concept and proposed
ways to expand administrative capacity
with the help of technique without fasting
bureaucratization.
In recent years, as a result of scientific
research in Russia is formed
the concept of the economic mechanism as
unity of organizational, economic and
social control systems.
© Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, 2005
© Design. INFRA-M, 2005
* * *
250th Anniversary of the Moscow State University. M.B. Lomonosov is dedicated
* * *
Dear reader!
This textbook is published as part of the series “Textbooks of the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov”, crowning the long-term efforts of the faculty staff to update the content and structure of the university economic education.
The transition of the country to the market required a revision of the profession of an economist, the development and application of previously unclaimed knowledge, known, perhaps, only to a limited circle of critics of "bourgeois" economic thought.
To enrich the content of economic education by including new economic disciplines and updating a number of traditional ones, it was necessary to retrain teachers and solve the problem of textbooks. The first attempts to include new disciplines in the curricula showed the impossibility of this within one stage, therefore, updating the content, we had to simultaneously solve the problem of transferring education to a two-stage system.
The past 10 plus years are the years of mastering the technology of two-stage education "bachelor - master", which the faculty carries out without parallel training of specialists. The accession of the country to the Bologna process made this transition irreversible.
All these years, the retraining of the teaching staff was carried out: thanks to the programs of international cooperation, about 160 teachers of the faculty, on average, trained at the best foreign universities at least twice.
As for textbooks, the first years had to use the best foreign textbooks, many of which were translated by teachers into Russian. Now it's time to prepare high-quality domestic textbooks. The teaching corps has the opportunity to create original textbooks and teaching aids, prepared taking into account teaching experience and differentiated by the level of training of students (textbooks for bachelor's programs and textbooks for master's programs).
The solution of this problem was facilitated by the participation of the faculty in Innovation project Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, funded by the World Bank. The National Training Fund became the direct executor of the project.
Thanks to this project, the faculty implemented its project “Improving higher economic education at Moscow State University” for three years, as a result of which the teachers of the economic faculty prepared 74 textbooks and teaching aids in the main disciplines that shape the professions of economists and managers.
We believe that these textbooks fully reflect the most important achievements of university economic thought, which are necessary for the full-fledged training of economists and top managers.
Now more than 3,000 students are studying at the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University, the faculty has the largest master's program in economics in the country, the largest number of graduate students in economic specialties. The educational "field" includes more than 300 general disciplines and special courses. Part of the general courses is presented in this series of textbooks.
The faculty staff will gratefully accept comments and suggestions regarding the improvement of the proposed series of textbooks.
V.P. Kolesov
Dean of the Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, Professor, Doctor of Economics
Foreword
Dedicated to parents, wife and children
This textbook will focus on the centuries-old world history of managerial thought, the origins of which are found in materials dating back to the 4th millennium BC. e. Turning to the history of real management and ideas about management is every time a test of one's own hypotheses and ideas, the search for analogues of decisions, the evaluation of decisions made. In today's booming business environment, virtually every business magazine you can find quotations from historical manuscripts of ancient thinkers, statements by heads of state and military commanders of the past about managing people, about relationships with subordinates, about strategy and tactics of management, about power, conflicts and leadership, about control and accounting in management, and about many other still relevant management problems.
The question is: “Why leaf through the chronicle of past knowledge? Why should we look to the past in order to prepare for the future?” The answer is quite simple: “Yes, because there is nowhere else to look!”
At the same time, in the society of managers, the study of historical works on management has always been considered an exercise in excess. In an era of almost turbulent change external environment and drastic changes in their organizations, it is very difficult to force yourself to look for answers or advice in the works of ancient thinkers and even their compatriots who lived 100-200 years ago. As a result, modern managers and even management theorists began to gradually forget F. Taylor's ideas about the study of work movements - and today we present the idea of the rational distribution of manager's time as a discovery of science; they began to forget the law of A. Fayol about the functions of management - and today we are struggling to explain the stability of the functional organizational structures of management; did little to promote universal organizational science(tectology) by A. Bogdanov - and today we admire naive arguments about synergetic effects and defects in mergers and acquisitions of corporations, etc., etc.
These examples refer to the history of management ideas, but there are no fewer facts in the history of real management that could be useful lessons for those who are ready to learn from it. The modern educated manager cannot afford to disregard wise advice regardless of the time of origin of the source of this advice - be it Sun Tzu's advice on strategic management, expressed in the 5th century BC. e., either the recommendations of the ancient Romans on agricultural management, or the SWOT analysis methodology developed by management consultants in the 70s of the XX century.
In this textbook we will talk about the history of the ideas of managing any social object. The object of management will be understood as an organization as a set of two or more people united by common goals, using various kinds of resources, transforming resources into products (goods or services) and exchanging (realizing) products for the necessary resources to maintain its existence and development. Management of the organization will be understood as a conscious purposeful impact on the organization.
Examples organizations are state enterprises, public associations, private companies of various sizes, various regional and sectoral affiliations, family, state, society as a whole. As organization goals Consideration is given to ensuring the welfare and security of members of the organization, rational management of the economy, meeting the needs of members of the organization, maximizing profits, increasing the value of the company, penetrating into new markets, meeting the needs of customers. Examples organization resources- finance, people, raw materials, land, semi-finished products, components, scientific developments, information, time.
Based on the definition of an organization, we can hypothesize that managing an organization is one of the oldest types of human activity, since from the moment two people appeared on Earth, there was a need for a purposeful impact of one of them on the other. If this is so, then, obviously, over the entire period of its existence, mankind has accumulated both vast practical experience and many management ideas. Today it is necessary to search for these ideas, identify, collect, store, process, analyze, synthesize, systematize and, if possible, apply them in solving modern management problems. After reviewing the material of the textbook, the reader will be convinced that for many millennia the problem of effective and rational management of an organization has been one of the vital and worried both the minds of practitioners - business executives, statesmen, production organizers, military commanders, entrepreneurs, and scientists - philosophers, jurists , political scientists, sociologists, psychologists, economists, managers, historians, etc.
Management problems have been and remain in the focus of attention of business circles, political elites, the public, educators, and management consultants. Representatives of these communities were often the authors and implementers of management ideas. The main motives for the search, formation and development of management ideas have always been to ensure the well-being, well-being and safety of members social organization(families, enterprises, states, societies), and hence the increase in the effectiveness of managerial decisions, the constant improvement of the management of the organization, the increase in efficiency, the life of organizations. It is this process of emergence, formation and development of managerial ideas over a long time interval in various regions of the world that this textbook is devoted to.
Of course, proceeding from the principle “one cannot grasp the immensity”, far from all even the already known ideas and concepts of management are included in the textbook, and the works of not all scientists are characterized. Nevertheless, along with well-known authors and typical, most popular concepts, the textbook also presents little-known authors and their developments in management problems.
This textbook attempts to analyze and synthesize theoretical and applied developments on the management of various organizations in different specific historical eras. The authors of the developments were representatives of the civilizations of the Ancient East, China, India, Greece and Rome, the feudal states of the Middle Ages, the first capitalist states, the modern states of Germany, England, Austria, the USA, Russia, etc. Covering a long historical period (4th millennium BC er - the beginning of the 21st century) and being limited by the volume of the textbook, the author did not always compare the material presented or a comparative analysis of the considered points of view on management and referred the reader to the relevant literature or to carry out independent scientific research and projects on the proposed topic (see. Appendix 1.).
The main difference between this textbook and published works on the history of management thought is that it presents not only systematized views on management, but also some interesting "elemental" ideas and management concepts that have been applied in real practice. Thus, the textbook presents not only and even not so much the history of management science as the history of management ideas, views, theories that constantly arose in order to solve real management problems of a certain class. That is why the beginning of the presentation dates back to the most ancient available textbook written sources of human thought, where the first thoughts about managing an economy or organizations were found. And for the same reason, the textbook presents ideas and concepts related to individual elements, characteristics and aspects of the management system (methods, functions, goals, personnel, motivation, organizational management structures, decision-making processes, power, leadership, conflicts, strategic management, organizational development, organizational changes and etc.). And finally, to a greater extent than in similar textbooks published so far, domestic management thought is presented, which has not been adequately reflected in either Western or domestic literature.
Logic and structure of the textbook. The extensive material on the history of managerial thought (HIM) can be presented in different ways, depending on the chosen logic. In turn, the choice of presentation logic is determined primarily by subject area(more on this in Section 1.2). In connection with the general question of logic, particular questions arise relating to the most important factors and features of the chosen logic of presentation. More precisely, the following question arises:
Which (or which) of the factors listed below should be chosen as the main one in the presentation educational material:
Time (and then to present the material filiatively, chronologically);
Personalities (as they recently write about management gurus);
Branches of the economy (branch management concepts);
Countries (regional management concepts);
Business size (small, medium, large);
Organizational and legal form of organization (state, public, private, mixed organizations);
Control systems in general (synthetic theories);
Control functions and/or other elements of the control system (one-dimensional theories);
Functional areas of the organization (i.e. development of views on the management of marketing, finance, personnel, etc.);
Aspects of management (economic, legal, political, psychological, sociological, etc.);
Other Historical and Scientific Researches (HIS) - the history of economic, political, legal, sociological, administrative and other teachings (comparative approach);
Theories of organizations (theoretical-organizational approach);
Management paradigms (in the style of I.T. Prigozhin, N.A. Kuhn and other science scholars);
Backgrounds (civil history, economics, politics, sociology, demography)?
The list of factors can be continued, but when presenting the material, only one factor is chosen as the main one. Of course, a combined approach to the presentation of educational material is also possible, in some sections we used it. This is connected, on the one hand, with the desire for a systematic and multifaceted presentation, and on the other hand, with the presence of little-studied areas of IUM, gaps and "white spots" in IUM when choosing any factor.
When presenting, we tried to answer the main questions of IUM: “Why and for what purpose was this or that idea of management proposed? Why was it proposed at this particular time? Why in this particular place? Why did this person turn out to be the author of the idea? Given that the textbook is intended for bachelors and masters, we tried to present it in a fairly simple and understandable language, with good historical references, an anthology, a fairly complete bibliography, regardless of the chosen logic of presentation. For those who are interested in research on IUM, at the end of the textbook, the topics of abstracts - scientific projects (see Appendix I) are proposed.
Textbook plan. The textbook consists of 8 chapters. The 1st chapter presents the main methodological issues of the formation and development of the history of managerial thought (HIM). First of all, the relevance of increasing the scientific character in making managerial decisions is emphasized, the general and specific characteristics of IUM as a scientific, applied and academic discipline, the role and place of IUM in the history of other sciences, questions of organization of research and development methods of IUM, source study and other problems of IUM.
The 2nd chapter characterizes the main sources and sources of world management thought over several centuries - from the birth of the first human civilizations to the beginning of the era of early feudalism; the administrative aspects of the monuments of administrative thought of the Ancient World - treatises of thinkers, statesmen, heads of households, public, religious and military figures are revealed.
The 3rd chapter continues the description of the main directions and works, which reflect the development of managerial ideas, views and concepts in the era of feudalism, the genesis and formation of capitalism in Western countries. This chapter reflects, perhaps, one of the first special treatises on management, the authors of which were the organizers of production, statesmen, scientists, representatives high school, including the first business schools.
Chapter 4 analyzes the genesis and development of managerial thought in Russia in the 9th–18th centuries. The authors of ideas here are statesmen and religious figures, scientists, representatives of various estates and classes of Russia, including representatives of the emerging third estate. Sources were ancient chronicles and legends, legislative acts, monographs of scientists and thinkers, archival documents and memoirs.
Chapter 5 reflects the development of managerial thought in Russia in the 19th century. At this time, the works of M. Speransky appeared, for the first time departments of chamberlists were opened at Russian universities, treatises on management by representatives of higher education were published, materials from all-Russian trade, industrial and industry congresses, at which topical problems of management were discussed, management reforms were carried out, led by Russian state figures.
The 6th chapter presents the main Western schools of management of the 20th century. In all known works of history public thought this era is referred to as the era of scientific management. The characteristics of management schools show both their continuity with the management ideas of the past, and their fundamental nature in terms of manifestation in future management theories and concepts.
The 7th chapter is devoted to the history of Soviet management thought - from the works of the propagandists of the Taylor system to the original works of Soviet scientists and management practitioners on the effective management of a planned socialist economy.
Chapter 8 gives a description of modern management theories based on the achievements of socio-psychological research, and several new management concepts, some of which are still staged.
In preparing the textbook, with their advice and suggestions, the author's colleagues, employees of the departments of production management and the history of the national economy of the Faculty of Economics of Lomonosov Moscow State University, provided invaluable professional assistance. M.V. Lomonosov, participants of the international conference on IUM, regularly organized at Moscow State University. And, of course, this textbook would not have been written without the assistance and financial support of the World Bank.
The author expresses his gratitude to Professor Gavriil Kharitonovich Popov, who blessed me with research on the history of managerial thought, and to his friend Boris Anatolyevich Korobov, who convinced me that the history of management and managerial thought is a necessary and sufficient means not only of scientific proof of the past, but also explanations of the present and even possible prediction of the future in the management of human communities.
Conditions for the emergence of management
The emergence of management is closely connected with the general progress of science and technology. Its formation and improvement was determined by practical need in new methods of labor organization.
Updating the factory management system at the end of the 19th century. was due to several reasons. The replacement of living labor by machines, the introduction of new technology, which sharply increases labor productivity, led to difficulties in marketing products. In addition, engineers who manage production began to be required not only to know technology and technology, but also to be able to calculate costs, revenues, profits, and also find mutual language with subordinates and bear the full burden of responsibility for their work.
Another important reason for the emergence scientific approach management is a low level of general technical and technological culture at enterprises and the use of low-skilled foreign labor. Until the beginning of the 20th century. the work of managing engineers in most cases was based on experience and intuition. Engineers who wanted to introduce elements of science into management were treated with distrust. Respect could rather be earned by that engineer who, for example, was able to draw on the sand the contours of the part or assembly he needed.
The lack of comprehensive knowledge affected the results of production. Decisions to use new types of equipment were often made without a clear vision of the organization's future. First, they built (purchased), launched, and then looked at why it still didn’t work. And this attitude was not only among craftsmen or technicians, often engineers with higher education approached their work in the same way. emergency situations in which they fell, more and more forced to think about rational use means and instruments of production, the development of the most expedient methods of work and new system management.
The use of the word "management" (the Russian synonym is "management") in practice when discussing issues of practical management is attributed to G. Towne, who gained fame as a businessman, president and director of a number of US companies. The emergence of the concept of "management" and the beginning of its systematic use is associated with the activities of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (AS ME) and, in particular, with the meeting of the society in 1886, at which the president of the company Yale and Towne Manufacturing G. Town made a report "Engineer in the role of an economist".
In 1986, in the United States, at the initiative of the Academy of Management, the centenary of the scientific direction "management" was celebrated. The report "Management of labor processes" noted that in the management of large industrial production with the introduction of new machines and mechanisms, it is increasingly necessary to develop methods of remuneration that would be of interest to entrepreneurs and at the same time contribute to the intensification of production. However, in most cases, in practice, the wages of workers are placed in complete dependence on the will of the entrepreneur. In particular, with piecework wages, the approximate time required to perform a particular job was determined, based on the speed of its implementation by experienced workers. More often than not, the average worker, even if he worked hard, could not get more than what he was paid by the time wage. Capital sought to strengthen the methods of labor intensification, but this path did not bring success. Justified calculations of the amount of profit allocated for payments to workers, and the system of participation of workers in the distribution of profits of the organization, have not developed.
As specialization and automation of production increased, the manager's activities became increasingly specific gravity began to occupy problems of effective coordination of work various specialists. Note that it was the desire to increase efficiency that was the main factor that provoked the development of the theory scientific organization F. Taylor's labor, according to which, if labor is organized more efficiently, then along with an increase in wages, the costs of maintaining the labor force can be reduced.
Note that at that time the term "efficiency" was interpreted as "getting more in return for less, or at least the same." Today, this concept has many interpretations, here is the most common: efficiency - maximizing output while minimizing production costs.
We add that later it is to solve problems effective coordination G. Gantt and the Gilbretts devoted themselves to the study of management effectiveness, and new areas of cost and profit control at all stages of production and promotion of the product became the objects of close attention of the next generations of management researchers. The name of another talented person, X. Emerson, is associated with management effectiveness studies, whose ideas were distinguished by a peculiar look at relationship between efficiency and organization structure.
Back in those years, it was noted that small businesses scattered throughout the country can compete with large organizations. It would seem that a large company can purchase large quantities of goods, receive discounts and savings from operations on a large scale, and thereby increase the efficiency of operations. But studies by X. Emerson showed that in large organizations (especially in some industries) there is often the effect of diminishing returns to scale. The reason for this effect is the lack of consistency in information flows and decisions with a cumbersome organizational structure. Thus, the efficiency of activity achieved due to the size of the organization, the increase in scale and the growth of production volumes has limits and, starting from certain indicators, does not increase. Many large companies experienced diminishing returns to scale in practice and made unpopular decisions to reduce the number of jobs and the size of the organization.
X. Emerson saw the solution to the problem of decreasing efficiency in improving the organization of management, and above all, its organizational structure. Note that organizational structure, as a certain relationship between units and links, has always been under the close attention of researchers. However, the role of each division and the effectiveness of their relationship was mainly worked out in practice. The most common were linear, functional and headquarters organizational structures.
Linear the structure of the distribution of job responsibilities - when each employee is maximally focused on fulfilling the production tasks of the organization. All powers go from the highest level of management to the lowest. Among the advantages linear structure- responsibility, established obligations, a clear distribution of duties and powers, etc. Among the shortcomings are inflexibility, rigidity, unsuitability for the further growth of the organization.
functional structure - the most common, in this case, linear management is supported by special support services. Currently, linear-functional structures are widely used.
From an analytical point of view, staff structure can be divided into two "layers of control". The first of these layers (the highest and second levels of the organization) centralize the planning and distribution of resources, make strategic decisions, manage conflicts between elements of the structure. The second control layer covers the levels of control from the third to the lower levels of the hierarchy (jobs).
Emerson noted that such a combination of linear and staff forms is possible, which, due to organization, will increase the efficiency of the organization. Such a combination should become the basis for developing the functions of headquarters and the relationship between line and staff managers. At the same time, the powers of managers, proven by practice, should be adjusted. For example, a line manager is not authorized to start work separately from staff employees. However, even with this method, the weak link was the coordination of all components of management.
The size of an organization is not the only factor influencing its effectiveness. In many critical situations, a key role is played by human factor".
The deep specialization of production and management has brought enormous advantages in personal and social aspects: workers have the opportunity to achieve a high level of qualification; increased speed and quality of work; reduced the time required to obtain a profession; labor-saving innovations were stimulated. But at the same time, the employee often does not realize the meaning of achieving common goals.
Classical management theory has helped create a set of modern tools for developing managerial skills in the workplace and educational programs in all areas of managerial professional development.
- Town Henry (1844-1924) - F. Taylor's predecessor, became famous as a businessman, president and director of a number of US companies. Since 1870, he began to introduce new management methods at his factories under the slogan "factory management is no less important than technology."
As a result cognitive activity people arose what we call the modern theory of management. She (theory) has a thousand-year history. The history of managerial thought teaches the correct use of ideas and accumulated experience of management in modern efforts. The study of the history of managerial thought is a prerequisite for combating the "self-sufficiency syndrome" of a manager, when a person involved in management believes that he knows everything. The study of the history of managerial thought requires a specific creative approach.
a) it is necessary to judge the theorists and practitioners of management of the past not by what they did not give in comparison with modern management requirements, but by what they gave new in comparison with their predecessors;
b) every beginning is always empty, poor in content, it is only a tendency to accumulate all content. From this point of view it is necessary to approach the evolution of managerial thought.
The emergence of managerial thought in ancient Egypt and BabylonManagement thought arises already in primitive society, where people accumulate the first experience of managing small social communities (family, clan, tribe). People have the first experience of optimizing relationships. In ancient Egypt, both building art and pottery were developed, papyrus was created, astronomy developed, a calendar appeared, the foundations of geometry and algebra were laid, medicine and anatomy arose. The people building the pyramids gained their first experience of managing large organizations. The construction of the pyramids dates back to the III millennium BC.
Management Thought in Ancient ChinaFeatures of Management Thought Ancient China
1. It is recorded in written literary sources. Written by specific people, not anonymously;
2. Reflects the mentality of the Chinese, their culture. Mechanical extrapolations are not possible;
3. Management ideas do not reflect the experience of managing production, but political organizations (the state).
Where is management thought going? For centuries, the idea of effective organization production, ranging from personal farming to the state, occupied the minds of practitioners and economists, sociologists, historians, political scientists, lawyers, etc. Naturally, by now, vast experience and theoretical knowledge has been accumulated in managing the national economy at all levels. Various concepts, theories, teachings, scientific management schools developed by many generations of scientists are known. different countries. It is also obvious that in the organization of various kinds of business, along with many features, there is much in common.
In the task of the first international scientific and practical conference on the history of management thought and business included an inventory of management ideas in the past, an analysis of their state and effectiveness in the present, as well as a forecast for the emergence of new management paradigms in the future. The questions included in the program related to the organization of economic management in different eras, in various types businesses in developed, developing and transition economies. The reports were grouped into three topics - the evolution of managerial thought, modern business concepts and managerial ideas of tomorrow.
The evolution of managerial thought. Professor V. Marshev (Moscow State University) in the plenary report “Managerial Ideas. History of management paradigms. Formation of the history of managerial thought” noted that managerial thought went through three major stages - management in police states (7th century BC - the end of the 18th century), legal (end of the 18th - mid-19th centuries) and cultural (mid-19th centuries). - the beginning of the 20th century). Among the representatives of all directions, one should also name the names of our compatriots (sometimes little known to the scientific community), such as Yu. Krizhanich, M. Speransky, I. Platonov, V. Goltsev, V. Ivanovsky, D. Pikhno. Further, the speaker briefly described the numerous schools of scientific management of the 20th century, in which the ideas of domestic and foreign predecessors were essentially developed.
A hypothesis is put forward about the existence of a certain regularity in the development of managerial thought, the emergence and change of schools and teachings, embodied in the practice of production management. The essence of the regularity is that, firstly, each subsequent school arose and replaced the previous one as a result of dialectical contradictions that arose in the latter and were insoluble by it; secondly, the root cause of contradictions has always been a person or human communities, more precisely, the importance that was attached to the human factor in the studies of the corresponding school. The first component of the regularity is an analogue of Gödel's incompleteness theorem and is of a universal nature for the development of managerial thought. The second one is concrete-subjective and can serve both as a tool for studying the history of managerial thought (more precisely, measuring the content of a particular school), and as a means of predicting the “historical moment” of the emergence of the next school based on a kind of cyclical development of managerial thought.
Associate Professor D. Platonov (Moscow State University) formulated the relationship between the objective development of the national economy and the corresponding scientific and practical doctrine of management. In his opinion, the national economy is not only an environment that generates ideas, including managerial ones. This is also a special environment in which many of them are implemented, which is often hidden from researchers of macroeconomics, developers of economic theories due to the universality of the subjects of their research. In other words, research in the field of the history of the national economy and the history of managerial ideas are interconnected, interdependent and enrich each other.
Professors of the State Academy of Management G. Latfullin and Y. Radchenko emphasized the importance of research and reconstruction of Russia's rich historical heritage in the development of organizational ideas. According to the speakers, the operation of the organizational laws underlying the principles economic activity, much longer in time and wider in space than other social laws (including economic ones), and therefore they are more general.
The report is illustrated with examples from the works of Russian educators, statesmen, organizers of production and scientists, as well as cultural monuments (chronicles, princely charters, etc.), in which organizational thoughts, views, ideas and concepts were manifested or formulated, which have not lost their relevance today. In particular, the “Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik” (XIII century) is mentioned, which contains such elements of management theory as the concepts of hierarchy, competence of leaders, goal-setting priorities, etc. In the works of M. Speransky (early XIX century), the concept of “rules for organizing management ”, organizational categories “responsibility”, “planning and control”, “separation of powers”, “decision-making process”, “management methods” are formulated. In the works of the Russian mining engineer K.Skalkovsky, a number of management ideas and paradigms were discovered that actually anticipated the emergence of similar provisions in the West, including those widely known as “Parkinson's law” or “Peter's principle”.
The report of Associate Professor A. Naumov (MSU) “Hofsteed's dimension of Russia (the impact of national culture on business management)” reported on one of the first attempts at a major sociological study with the aim, firstly, of identifying and measuring the characteristics of Russian national culture and, secondly, , determining the influence of national culture (as a more general concept) on other levels of culture and, above all, organizational and managerial. In the course of the survey, 250 respondents - citizens of Russia were interviewed using a questionnaire developed by the author, which contains 29 groups of questions characterizing five indicators (measurements) of national culture proposed by the Dutch scientist G. Hofsteed.
Management ideas tomorrow. In his report “Economic Reforms and Anti-Crisis Management in Russia in Transition”, Professor S. Belyaev expressed the idea that the crisis in production was a consequence, not a cause of the crisis in management. The processes of economic liberalization, privatization and corporatization took place without a sufficiently developed legal basis, in the absence of a bankruptcy law. As a result, privatization dragged on and led to the current results.
Today, according to the speaker, the problem is not in improving the process and legal procedures of bankruptcy, but in improving the methods of managing enterprises that are close to bankruptcy. Hence the term “anti-crisis management”, which is not a synonym for “competitive management”, “ external management”, carried out through judicial (arbitration) bodies.
Anti-crisis management involves the preparation and use of teams of arbitration managers at the enterprise. The objects of management should be traditional functional areas- staff, strategic planning, marketing, finance, production, and management itself should not be defensive in nature (reduction of production, market, personnel), but active - aggressive marketing, development of new business and strategy, retraining of personnel, etc.
Further, the speaker compared the characteristics of a professor of management of the past and the future. In the past, this person is highly specialized, highly professional, focused on the transfer of knowledge, distant from students, feeling superior to them in knowledge, acting within the framework of the curriculum and program. In the future, this is a person capable of integrating different knowledge, actively involved in the learning process with the help of new technologies, and, consequently, in relationships with students. He is more of a coordinator than a mentor, developer and “implementer” of the business school strategy.
The period of 60-80s was characterized by the development of a systemic representation of control in statics and dynamics. Significant results have been achieved in socio-psychological studies of management. At the same time remained unexplored organizational behavior, development and culture, situational management.
In the 80-90s, the main objects of research were managerial relations, organizational behavior, organizational culture, situationality and changes. Learning organizations have emerged, adapting to change. At the same time, despite the development of the benchmarking tool, there are still no achievements in solving the problem of “who is the best in management”.
TOPIC 9 MANAGEMENT - SCIENCE PRACTICE
Topic 1 Introduction to "Management Theory: History of Management Thought".
Definition of the concept of "management". Goals and objectives of the discipline. Subject and object of research. Prerequisites for the emergence of management. Human activity and the need for management. The origins of management activity in ancient world. Cybernetics as the art of management. management revolutions.
The word "management" of English origin; its literal translation into Russian is "management".
The term "management" is used in various meanings:
1) professional management of the economic activity of the enterprise, which is carried out in a market economy and is aimed at extracting maximum profit with the rational use of resources
2) scientific management theory, a field of knowledge about the management of socio-economic processes
3) management can also be viewed as making managerial decisions. In this case, the word "management" is used to refer to the process.
4) management is understood as a management apparatus, consisting of leaders (managers) different levels. Such a governing body is characterized by a hierarchical organization in which some leaders are subordinate to others.
The purpose and objectives of the discipline: to create a methodological basis for the subsequent study of both individual aspects of management, and for the formation of an integral worldview in relation to managerial problems in the field of organization management.
The object of research is the management system, the subject is problems in the organization of management, professionalism, motivation mechanisms, etc.
Management acts both as a science and as an art. As the science of management reveals the nature of managerial work, cause-and-effect relationships, factors and conditions for the joint work of people; studies economic relations in the sphere of production, distribution and exchange of material and non-material goods, is based on the knowledge and use of economic laws and patterns.
Understanding management as an art is based on taking into account the characteristics of the organization, as well as the specifics of each human personality that makes up this organization. Any organization is a complex, usually open, system, the functioning of which is influenced by many factors of the external and internal environment. Under these conditions, not every person, even a professionally trained one, is able to manage the activities of other people (team members), quickly make the right decision, take responsibility for this decision and put it into practice. This is precisely the problem of management as an art. To avoid such problems, the manager must rely on the science and art of management, combining them into a single process.
Management - this is a system that provides a complex process of functioning of the organization's purposeful economic activity, the effective use of production factors (labor, capital and land) and finance for this, which is based, in turn, on a system of principles, functions, methods and organizational structure of management that are adequate to the corresponding the conditions of its external environment.
As a process, management includes a number of sequential functions: planning, organizing, directing and controlling to achieve the goals of the organization, the coordinated use of human and material resources.
Through the performance of functions, managers provide conditions and organize the effective use of the labor of personnel, production apparatus, material and financial resources of the organization.
The human need for management was determined by the following factors:
One of the main reasons is the division of labor;
The division of labor is closely related to another factor - the technological complication of the production process;
The complexity of the structure of production.
Stages of management development
Giving a description of the surrounding world, we can distinguish three main components: inanimate nature, wildlife and human society. This division allows classification of management processes:
in inanimate nature (technical systems);
in wildlife (biological systems, organisms);
in human society (social systems). Technical systems management, those. machines, mechanisms, production and technical processes, as a rule, are called management of means of labor (things). This area of management is the subject of study of technical sciences.
Process management, flowing into wildlife, studied by the natural sciences.
Control as impact on people's activities united in groups, teams, with their different interests, is the management of people (employees). This most complex area of social systems management is the subject of study of the social (social) sciences.
Without management, no organization, no enterprise can succeed. However, management as an activity and as a science in the form in which we currently have it did not appear immediately. The practice of management is as old as the world. But today no one can say with a sufficient degree of certainty when the first elements of control arose. Apparently, the need for it arose when people began to live and hunt in groups. Much later, K. Marx would point out that
all directly social labor carried out on a comparatively large scale needs, to a greater or lesser extent, a management that establishes a coherence between individual works and performs general functions.
As soon as prehistoric people began to live in organized groups, they had a need for control in three areas human activity:
defensive - protection from wild animals and enemies;
political - establishing and maintaining order in the group;
economic - the production and distribution of limited resources: food, clothing, tools, weapons, etc.
At the first stage, when the groups of people were small, management in all areas was carried out by one person - the leader of this group. Later, as the groups grew and the functions performed by them became more complex, the need arose for the division of labor and differentiation of functions. But it took centuries.
Ancient world
Egyptian pyramids built between 3000-2000 B.C. BC, are a clear evidence not only of the culture of the ancient Egyptians, but also of their managerial art. The construction of huge pyramids required, above all, clear planning. It was necessary to decide where, what size and how to extract the stone, how to transport it to the construction site. In addition, it was necessary to solve all organizational issues: when and with what transport to deliver stones to the construction site. The stones were cut down in winter and spring, and transported during the flood of the Nile. Thus, the issues of reducing construction costs were solved. The administration was also entrusted with coordinating the actions of tens of thousands of slaves, peasants and officials.
Insignificant sources that have come down to us testify to a rather broad understanding of the problems of government by the Egyptians, and in particular, the essence of power, the significance of the style and methods of leadership. In the ancient written monument of Egypt - the book "Instruction of Ptahhotep", dated 2000-1555. BC, contains advice and recommendations that have not lost their relevance at the present time: “If you are the boss, be calm when you listen to the words of the petitioner; do not push him away before he eases his soul from what he wanted to tell you.
The ancient Greeks paid special attention to the organization and management of production processes, cared for a clear specialization of workers. In their speeches Plato said that a person cannot work equally well on stone, and on iron, and on wood. The bricklayer does not have to sharpen his own tool. He considered management to be the science of the general development of people, which should be based on universal reasonable laws. In the management of society, the main role should belong to politicians (kings) who oversee the human herd. At the same time, he singled out two types of supervision: titanic, based on force, and political, soft. Each member of society performs its specific functions, and the ruler weaves them into a harmonious whole.
Socrates gives an understanding of management as a special sphere of human activity. He said that the main thing in management is to put the right person in the right place and achieve the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to him. The current position, in essence, has not changed. As the authors of the textbook “Fundamentals of Management” note: “There is no organization without people. Without the right people, no organization can achieve its goals and survive.”
The linear structure of government was expressed in the system of government of the Roman Empire. Its main problem was the collection of taxes from all its parts, which were far removed from each other. Direct rule from Rome was extremely difficult. Therefore, in 284 AD. emperor Diocletian divided the empire into 101 provinces, all of which were reduced to 12 dioceses, and those, in turn, into four geographical regions. Diocletian and his three assistants led these regions. Assistants had certain powers and rights in dealing with civil matters, but military power was strictly centralized. The change in the management structure made it possible to strengthen the power of the Roman Empire.
How far management thought advanced in ancient Rome can be shown by the example of the farm management system used there. For example, Cato the Elder(234-149 BC) wrote about the need to plan work on a farm on whole year forward. He spoke about the mandatory control over the work done, about the need to compare the program and the results, about clarifying the reasons for the non-fulfillment of the plan, about rational organization works.
The ideas in the field of management put forward by the thinkers of the Ancient East are interesting. From the ancient Indian treatise "Arthamastra" (IV-III centuries BC) it is clear that such sciences as philosophy, the doctrine of economy and the doctrine of public administration have been developed. in Sanskrit art of management is called "dan-daniti", literally translated "guide to owning a stick" (in Sanskrit, a stick is danda).
The organizations of the Ancient World were characterized by:
a relatively small number of managers, the virtual absence of middle managers;
managerial work is often not distinguished and separated from non-management activities;
positions of heads of organizations were most often occupied by birthright or by force;
few large organizations.
However, it should be noted that in ancient times large organizations had formal management structures with clearly defined levels of management. The leaders of these organizations spent a certain amount of effort to coordinate their activities. Organizations forged links with other organizations, which contributed to their achievement of some success.
Middle Ages and Modern Times
In management practice, there are examples of organizations that arose in the Middle Ages and are successfully functioning at the present time thanks to the creation of a rational management structure. These include the Roman Catholic Church, which has the simplest governance structure: pope, cardinal, archbishop, bishop, and parish priest. Modern military organizations also have a structure similar to that of the Catholic Church. The presence of effective governance structures allows these organizations to successfully develop and prosper, while many modern organizations with weak governance structures decline or even cease to exist.
Management theory in the ancient world was poorly developed. Basically, management was carried out in practice, mostly by trial and error. There was also an exchange of experience and ideas among rulers, church leaders, and military leaders.
A significant contribution to the development of problems of state administration and legal doctrines was made by the Italian statesman and politician Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527). In his works, he dealt with the issues of studying the style of work of the leader, the organization of his work, the relationship between managers and subordinates.
In the era of Peter I in Russia, exceptional conditions developed for strengthening the centralized state. The reforms carried out by Peter I were aimed at achieving the "common good". The power of the sovereign was interpreted as unlimited and above the law. The “Military Article” says: “The sovereign should not give an answer to anyone in the world about his affairs, but he has his own states and lands with strength and power ... govern according to his will with piety.” The reforms of Peter 1 concerned public administration.
Unfortunately, the evolution of managerial thought in Russia during this period has not been sufficiently studied. The experience of managing plants in Siberia and the Urals is known. In the book of the head of the main plants in Siberia and the Urals, V.I. Gennin touches upon issues that have not lost their relevance at the present time: long-term planning, accounting and reporting, leadership style and qualities of a leader, etc. Gennin describes a model of a leader in which the main place is given to his organizational skills and personal qualities (honesty, diligence, common sense, sober calculation, diligence). These qualities are important for a modern leader.
In the conditions of capitalist and feudal societies, the need to study management problems was limited. The main attention was paid to solving the problems of state administration.
The basis of the existence of feudal society was subsistence farming. Slaves and serfs were in complete personal dependence on the will and power of the owner, which did not stimulate the growth of labor productivity.
Industrial Revolution and Industrial Relations
The revolution in production relations is associated with the industrial revolution, which began in the middle of the 18th century. First half of the 19th century characterized by the emergence of capitalism, first in England, and then in the United States and Europe. In the 80s. 19th century The Industrial Revolution swept across North America, and an unprecedented economic "boom" began. There was a transition from relatively small handicraft workshops to large-scale machine production, in which a large number of unskilled and semi-skilled workers were employed.
The industrial revolution is associated with the allocation of three levels of management: upper, middle and lower. A master appeared in production.
In the management practice of that time, an authoritarian leadership style, inhuman exploitation of workers and unlimited arbitrariness in relation to subordinates flourished widely. The foreman's power over workers was essentially unlimited, from setting production targets to hiring, moving, and firing workers. The foreman set the length of the working day and the value of the production rate, controlled all the actions of the workers, fined them and punished them. Especially in the first period of the development of factory production, management is characterized by strict discipline and the construction of organizations according to the military type. The task of industrial management was to achieve a high return on the labor of workers. At this stage in the development of management, there has only been an emerging trend transition from the principle of supervision of workers to the principle of organizing labor on a scientific basis.
The Industrial Revolution gave impetus to the development of theoretical research and management practice.
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