The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade in goods.

The following terms are used to characterize trade between countries:

International or world trade - trade between all countries of the world. The sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

Interstate, mutual, bilateral trade- Trade between two countries.

International trade- trade of one country with the rest of the world. Foreign trade consists of two main flows - export and import.

Export- sale of goods, providing for its export from the country.

Import- the purchase of goods, providing for its import into the country.

To characterize foreign trade, there are the following indicators.

Foreign trade turnover- characterizes the participation of an individual country in international trade and is calculated as the sum of the value of exports and imports.

Foreign trade balance- characterizes the balance of foreign trade of a particular country and is calculated as the difference between the cost volumes of exports and imports. The excess of the volume of exports of goods over the volume of imports provides the country with a surplus trade balance (a positive balance trade balance TB). If the volume of imports is greater than the volume of exports, there is a passive trade balance (negative TB balance).

Terms of trade (terms of trade, terms of sale)- an indicator characterizing the conditions that develop for the foreign trade of a country or a group of countries in the world market, and representing the ratio of export and import price indices:

I At T = I X / I M× 100%.

Determines the purchasing power of exports of a country or group of countries, i.e. the quantity of goods that can be imported with their export earnings. The growth of the terms of trade index indicates an improvement in the situation for the country in the world market, and, conversely, its decrease indicates its deterioration.

A quantitative indicator of international or world trade is volume of world (international) trade- characterizes the total volume international trade all countries of the world. Calculated as world exports (since one country's exports are another's imports, adding world exports and imports would result in a double count).

Foreign trade policy - an integral part of foreign economic policy aimed at developing and regulating trade relations with other countries of the world and their groupings in order to strengthen the position of the country and its business in the world economic arena.

Autarky- economic isolation of the country from other countries, the creation of a closed economy within a separate state.

In its purest form, autarky manifested itself in the conditions of subsistence farming.

In the second half of the XX century. the liberalization of the economy began to intensify, independence from the influence of the state, i.e. a trend towards the abolition of restrictions on trade and the movement of factors of production, towards a transition from autarky and protectionism to free trade. Currently, there are two main areas of foreign trade policy: protectionism and free trade (free trade policy).

Protectionism (cover, patronage) - a policy aimed at protecting the domestic market and actively encouraging national companies to enter foreign markets.

Protectionism was the first policy adopted by states that were formed at the dawn of capitalism. Protectionism was intended to promote the development of an industry that was still in its infancy and at the stage of manufacture. Starting from the second half of the 19th century, Great Britain and France switched to a policy of free trade, while Germany and the USA, where the process of formation of industrial capitalism was just beginning, adhered to a policy of protectionism. This policy was intensified in all industrialized countries during the era of the formation of monopolies, during the First and Second World Wars, the deep economic crisis of 1929-1933.

In the postwar years, industrialized countries are moving towards the liberalization of foreign trade.

Liberalization- a form of foreign trade (foreign economic) policy that involves the removal of all sorts of barriers that impede the development of foreign trade and foreign economic relations in general.

The opposite of protectionism is free trade.

free trading(free trade) – exchange of goods and services between countries, freed to the maximum extent from restrictions in the form of customs duties, quantitative and other non-tariff barriers.

The openness of the economy leads to increased competition in the country and to an increase in the efficiency of the economy (usually in the long term).

Unlike developed countries, many developing countries are pursuing a policy of protectionism, protecting the newly emerging national industry.

Instruments of state regulation of foreign trade are divided into tariff and non-tariff ones.

Customs tariff - this is a systematized list of customs duties that are levied on goods when imported, and in some cases when exported from a given country .

Customs tariff - a collection (set) of customs duty rates applied to goods transported across the customs border of the country, systematized in accordance with the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity.

Customs duty - state monetary fees collected by customs institutions from goods, valuables and property transported across the customs border of the country.

Non-tariff restrictions- “any action, other than tariffs, that impedes the free flow of international trade”, such as embargoes, subsidies, licenses.

Importance of foreign trade for the national economy. Foreign trade is the interaction of a country with foreign countries regarding the movement of goods and services across national borders.

Foreign trade is characterized by the concepts of export and import: the first involves the export of goods and services abroad and the receipt of foreign currency in return, and the second - their import from abroad with the appropriate payment. Export, like investment, increases a country's aggregate demand and sets in motion the foreign trade multiplier, creating primary, secondary, tertiary, etc. employment. An increase in imports limits this effect due to the outflow of financial resources abroad.

Profitability of foreign trade. The theory of comparative advantage. Export in foreign trade, according to A. Smith, becomes profitable if the costs of producing goods within the country are much lower than those of other states. In this case, goods produced by the national economy have absolute advantages over foreign competitors and can be easily sold abroad. On the other hand, no state can have an absolute advantage in all produced goods, therefore, it is necessary to import those that are more expensive domestically and cheaper abroad. Then at the same time there is a direct benefit from both exports and imports.

Based on the absolute advantages of A. Smith, D. Ricardo formulated the theory of comparative costs (advantages), according to which, when determining the profitability of foreign trade, one should compare not the absolute, but the relative effect, and not the costs themselves, but their ratios. At the same time, it should be taken into account that, by producing certain goods in conditions of limited resources, the country is deprived of the opportunity to produce others that are no less necessary for it, therefore, in accordance with the theory of comparative advantages of D. Ricardo, a situation is quite possible in which it is profitable for the country to import goods, even if their domestic production is cheaper. In this case, A. Smith's theory of absolute costs becomes a special case of the theory of comparative costs.

The theory of comparative costs of D. Ricardo in modern conditions is supplemented by the theory of Heckscher-Ohlin, named after two Swedish economists, who proved that countries tend to export not only those goods that have absolute and relative advantages, but also in the production of which relatively excess factors of production are intensively used , but import goods for the production of which there is a shortage of factors in the country. Unlike A. Smith and D. Ricardo, their modern followers believe that both parties benefit from foreign trade - both this country and the rest of the world.

Foreign trade is the trade relations of a given country with other countries, which include both the import, or import, of goods, and their export, or export. The totality of foreign trade relations between different countries forms international trade. As part of this trade, over time, an international division of labor has formed, which underlies international trade relations. Foreign trade arose back in the days of natural production, and rapidly developed in the pre-capitalist era, entering into new forms with the advent of capitalist relations.

Foreign trade of the country

Foreign trade is the exchange of a country with other countries, which includes paid exports and imports of goods and services. The term "foreign trade" applies only to a single country.

To characterize both international trade and foreign trade, indicators of the total trade turnover, commodity and geographical structure are used.

Foreign trade turnover is the sum of the value of exports and imports of a country.

The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the respective years using current exchange rates.

The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining its real dynamics.

The commodity structure of world trade is the ratio of commodity groups in world exports.

Geographic structure - the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, allocated either on a territorial or organizational basis. Organizational geographical structure - data on international trade between countries belonging to separate integration and other trade and political groups, or allocated to a specific group according to certain criteria. The main forms of international trade are the export and import of goods.

The indicators reflecting the country's participation in international trade are export and import quotas. The export quota is calculated as the ratio of exports of goods and services to GDP and shows what share of all manufactured products in the country is sold on the world market. The import quota is calculated as the ratio of imports to the volume of domestic consumption of the country, which includes the totality of national production and import stocks, and shows what is the share of imported goods and services in domestic consumption.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover.

The trade balance is the difference between the value of exports and imports. Trade turnover - the sum of the value of exports and imports.

The subjects of international trade are all states of the world, transnational corporations and regional integration groups. The objects of international trade are the products of human labor - goods and services.

Given that the objects of international trade are goods and services, there are two forms of it: international trade in goods and international trade in services. International trade in goods is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor and expressing their mutual economic dependence.

In the international practice of statistical accounting of exports and imports, the date of registration is the moment when goods pass through the customs border of the country. The cost of exports and imports is calculated in most countries at contract prices reduced to a single basis, namely: export - at FOB prices, import - at CIF prices.

Statistical assessment of goods on FOB terms (free on board - free on board) includes, in addition to the cost of the goods themselves, all costs associated with its delivery to the ship, including loading on board. For overland transportation, the fob price means the price of the goods on the terms “free-land border of the exporting country”, which, in addition to the cost of the goods themselves, also includes the cost of its delivery to the border of the exporting country. The CIF price (cif - cost, insurance, freight - cost, insurance, freight) includes the cost of the goods on FOB terms - the port of departure plus the costs of insuring the goods in transit and transporting them (sea freight) to the port of destination. For land transportation, the concept of "cif price" corresponds to the price "ex-border of the importing country".

The value of world imports is always higher than the value of exports by the sum of the cost of freight and insurance, because world exports are valued at the FOB price and imports at the CIF price.

Accounting for counterparty countries, that is, countries between which foreign trade is carried out, is carried out according to the "production - consumption" method. In accordance with this method, imports are recorded according to the country of production (origin of the goods), and exports are recorded according to the country of consumption of the goods.

The UN Statistical Commission recommends taking into account in exports and imports all goods and material values ​​that, as a result of their export or import, reduce or increase the material resources of the country. Thus, exports and imports also include goods, the import-export of which was carried out on a non-commercial basis, that is, in the manner of providing gratuitous assistance or in the form of gifts.

The volume of world trade does not include the cost of all types of services, including material ones (construction and installation works, design, survey work, patents, licenses, printing of books, promotional materials).

The development of international trade has received a powerful impetus under the influence of the processes of globalization of the world economy, liberalization in the trade and political sphere, the expansion of preferential trade within the framework of regional economic associations, the deepening of international industrial and scientific and technical cooperation, the rapid growth in sales of progressive high-tech products, first of all, office and telecommunication equipment, incorporating the latest achievements of scientific and technical progress.

The main and urgent task for the enterprises of the Republic of Belarus at present is the formation of their TPN abroad. This will increase the efficiency of promoting goods to consumers, optimize the costs of promoting your own products, achieve stability, reliability and competitiveness in foreign markets, as well as basic positions in the further development and expansion of the market.

The formation of a commodity distribution system and a distribution network depends on a number of factors:

The nature and capabilities of the enterprise;
- the nature, volume and range of products;
- features of the market (economic, legal, scientific and technical, cultural and demographic, geographical, etc.).

Marketing activity is related to the market and is aimed at it.

In this regard, the processes taking place in the market, its changes and dynamics cannot but affect the activities of manufacturers. That is why international marketing activities involve the study, analysis and accounting of the market situation, as well as an active targeted impact on foreign markets.

The process of developing and implementing methods for the consistent development and retention of foreign markets provides for:

Initial study of the features of international markets, characteristics of the world market with the obligatory consideration of trends in their change;
- creation of an information database of economic, political, legal, scientific and technical characteristics that determine the processes and situation in international markets;
- analysis of the international business environment in specific foreign markets;
- setting goals for actions in foreign markets;
- selection of foreign markets on the basis of selection and ranking, acceptable for further activities, and the study of the characteristics of the selected markets;
- determination of the method of market development (market penetration): export, Team work, investment;
- development of private strategies for the marketing complex (commodity, price, communication, distribution) for work in foreign markets;
- Creation of services for the organization and management of international business.

With the development of foreign economic activity, this process becomes more complicated in accordance with the change in goals and objectives.

In addition, there are a number of features that should be taken into account, namely:

Dynamism and variability of the business environment in foreign markets;
- difficulty in obtaining the information necessary to carry out activities in foreign markets;
- the need for systemic and active, rather than episodic processing of markets at various stages of product promotion;
- the need to take into account the peculiarities of international cooperation and a foreign business partner;
- the presence of higher risks of activity in foreign markets;
- complication of organizational forms and managerial aspect of activity.

General marketing functions have universal application in both domestic and foreign markets. However, significant differences in the marketing environment of the domestic and foreign markets should be taken into account.

The enterprise is a complex self-organizing, self-regulating system that interacts in external environment both vertically and horizontally. The marketing environment is a set of entities operating outside the firm, organizational structures, forces and conditions in which the marketing activities of the enterprise are carried out. The macro-environment of marketing is a set of conditions that actively influence the activities of the company. These are common external factors - economic, political and legal, scientific and technological, natural and climatic, geodemographic, cultural.

The marketing microenvironment is the conditions that ensure the life of the company. The marketing microenvironment is formed by factors that are closely related to the firm, directly interacting with it and affecting its relationship with customers. These include: the company itself, its customers and contact audience (society), suppliers, intermediaries, competitors.

At the same time, it must be taken into account that within the marketing system there is pressure on the firm from elements of micromarketing, that is, from consumers with market power; suppliers providing the company with the necessary raw materials and materials; intermediaries that ensure the connection of the company with the target market of consumers; and, of course, from competitors.

Competition within the microenvironment increases due to the influence that suppliers and intermediaries have on the firm. For example, suppliers may withdraw from partnerships, raise prices, or cease their business activities. Competitors, in turn, can activate the methods of competition, switch to the production of a substitute (substitute product) product. Buyers - prefer the goods of other firms, change quantitatively and qualitatively.

The study of the system of five components of the marketing environment, which is based on a certain degree of dependence of the company on the elements of the microenvironment and its superiority over them, is a tool for developing marketing strategies that allow the company to achieve a stable competitive position in the market.

In this regard, it is necessary to investigate:

Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the target consumer (cultural characteristics and values, attitude to the product, price, etc.);
- quantitative and qualitative characteristics of suppliers;
- features of the TPS and intermediaries;
- quantitative and qualitative characteristics of competitors and the level of competition.

In other words, it is necessary to influence the microenvironment, changing and adapting it to the dynamics of the macroenvironment.

The active or passive position of the perception of the marketing environment is determined by the goals and capabilities of the company, that is, the rationality of its activities. Passive perception of the marketing environment involves an analysis of the forces acting in it and the development of measures to avoid the threats of the environment or take advantage of its favorable opportunities, that is, adapt to it; does not involve attempts to change the environment. Active perception of the marketing environment involves managing the environment through active actions that affect the consumer society and marketing environment factors; to a lesser extent or not at all involves simple observation and adaptation to ongoing changes.

Thus, the international marketing environment in which enterprises that produce and sell goods and services operate is becoming more complex. Firms succeed as long as they and their products and how they are promoted fit this environment.

Marketing impact is possible only on the basis of complex targeted monitoring, that is, the collection, systematization and analysis of information. In this regard, there is a need to actively use SWOT analysis - to identify and separate key factors influencing the strategic development of a company or industry into external and internal, positive and negative.

Internal factors (competitors, suppliers, intermediaries, customers and contact audiences) and external (economic, political and legal, scientific and technical, natural and geographical, cultural and demographic) can have both positive and negative impact on the company's activities, that is create opportunities or pose threats. At the same time, systematizing internal and external factors, it is necessary to develop strengths in the activities of the enterprise and compensate for weaknesses, seize opportunities and avoid threats. That is why the goals of SWOT analysis are an integrated assessment and forecasting of the activities of a firm or industry; development of a balanced strategy. As a rule, the results of the SWOT analysis are presented in tabular form.

Based on the results of the SWOT analysis, situations are predicted and a management solution is developed to prevent or overcome threats and mitigate risks in the company's activities. For example, at present, this type of analysis is actively used by marketing services of such enterprises as MTZ, MAZ, Milavitsa, Belaruskali, etc. The decisive role in monitoring markets should belong to the National Center for Marketing and Price Study, which is under the patronage of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus . It is this organization that should accumulate information and help domestic producers monitor markets.

The most significant, from the point of view of using the marketing mix, are the following goals of the enterprise: analysis of the sales structure, analysis of cost recovery, profit and cost savings, enterprise growth, and so on. Evaluation of products and programs is possible on the basis of various criteria. The most commonly used indicators in this role are sales volume and cost coverage. Analysis of the sales structure shows, first of all, the absolute and relative values ​​of products and product groups and deviations from the planned values ​​and indicators for the past period of time. The results of the sales assessment provide information about the product that should be excluded from the production program, since this reduces the level of marketing, and, consequently, the economic potential of the enterprise as a whole. For this, a concentration analysis is carried out, a variant of which can be the so-called ABC analysis. According to him, the products of the enterprise under study are divided into three classes according to selected criteria (an example of this can be sales, cost coverage, profits, as well as all manufactured goods) and distributed according to the share of each type of product in the total sales of the enterprise. The goods distributed in this way conditionally make up three groups: A - the group of the highest priority goods; B - a group of transitional products and C - the main candidates for dropping out of the production program of the enterprise.

In fact, ABC-analysis is a range ranking according to different parameters. It is possible to rank in this way both suppliers, and stocks, and buyers, and long periods of sales - everything that has a sufficient amount of statistical data. The result of ABC analysis is the grouping of objects according to the degree of influence on the overall result.

ABC analysis is based on the principle of imbalance, during which a graph of the dependence of the cumulative effect on the number of elements is built. Such a graph is called a Pareto curve, a Lorenz curve, or an ABC curve. Based on the results of the analysis, assortment positions are ranked and grouped depending on the size of their contribution to the cumulative effect.

Conclusions: in modern conditions, the country's active participation in world trade is associated with significant advantages: it allows more efficient use of the resources available in the country, join the world achievements of science and technology, more short time to carry out structural restructuring of its economy, as well as to meet the needs of the population more fully and diversified.

The main goal of monitoring the operating environment in foreign markets is to develop a management decision that ensures the achievement of a sustainable competitive position of domestic producers in foreign markets when creating and actively using TPS.

Regulation of foreign trade

A practical instrument of protectionist policy is the customs regulation of foreign trade. There are two main groups of methods of protectionism: customs-tariff and non-tariff. Customs tariff methods involve the establishment and collection of various customs duties for foreign trade activities. Non-tariff methods, of which there are up to 50, are associated with the establishment of various prohibitions, quotas, licenses and restrictions in the field of foreign trade. In fact, the foreign trade policy of any country is based on a combination of these two groups of methods.

The most common and traditional way of customs and tariff regulation of foreign trade is the customs duty.

Customs duty is an indirect tax that is levied on goods entering or leaving the customs territory, and which cannot be changed depending on two factors: the general level of taxation and the cost of services provided by customs.

Since the customs duty is an indirect tax, it affects the price of the goods. In customs practice, only movable tangible property is called a commodity.

A customs territory is a territory in which exports and imports are controlled by a single customs authority. The boundaries of the customs territory may not coincide with the border of the state. For example, with customs unions of several states. Or when, due to geographical conditions, the establishment of customs control is not possible or convenient. The borders of the customs territory are established by the government of each country.

Customs duty has two essential features. First, it can be withdrawn only by the state. And so it goes to the state (federal), and not the local budget. Secondly, import duty applies to goods of foreign origin. And export (albeit an atypical type of duty) - to goods of domestic production. In this regard, an important problem in customs practice is the correct and accurate determination of the country of origin of goods.

The product code is determined according to the harmonized system of description and coding of goods (HS) generally accepted in the world.

According to the method of calculating the fee can be:

1) ad valorem;
2) specific;
3) combined.

Ad valorem duties are set as a percentage of customs value goods. Specific - depending on the units of measurement of goods (for 1 ton, for 1 piece, for 1 cm3, etc.). Combined combines ad valorem and specific accruals. Customs duty rates are associated with various regimes of foreign trade activity. The minimum rate (called the base rate) is set for goods originating from countries with which there is an agreement on the most favored nation in trade (MFN). Maximum - for countries with which no MFN agreement has been concluded. The preferential, or preferential, rate is the lowest and is set on goods originating from a number of developing countries. In addition, according to world foreign trade rules, there is a group of the poorest countries whose agricultural products and raw materials are not subject to customs duties at all.

The higher the tariff level, the more reliably it protects national firms. But in order to understand who is personally protected by the tariff, it is necessary to consider the structure of production.

A tariff on a product of any industry is protection, but only in relation to the firm that produces it in the country. It also protects the income of workers and employees employed in these firms and creating "added value". In addition, the tariff protects the income of industries that supply this industry with raw materials and materials.

Thus, the tariff on goods (for example, refrigerators) supports not only firms that produce them, but also working firms, suppliers of parts. This makes it difficult to measure the effect of a tariff on the firms that produce the good. The position of firms that produce goods is also affected by tariffs on imported goods, which represent cost elements for them (firms), for example, imported components.

Therefore, a complete model of the interaction of supply and demand, simultaneously covering several industry markets, is required. To simplify the model, another measurement method is used. This method quantifies the impact of the entire tariff system on the value added of a unit of output produced by a given industry. At the same time, the production of the industry and subcontractors, as well as prices, do not change.

Thus, the actual level of protective tariff (the effectiv rate of protection) in a particular industry is defined as the value (in%) by which the added value of a unit of output created in this industry increases as a result of the operation of the entire tariff system.

The actual level of the protective tariff in a particular industry may differ significantly from the amount of tariff paid by the consumer of the “nominal level of the protective tariff”.

The effective customs duty rate characterizes two main principles that underlie the overall effect of protectionism:

Industry revenues or value added will be affected by trade barriers, not only erected on imports, but also operating on the industry's raw materials and materials market;
however, if the final product of an industry is protected by a higher duty than its intermediate products, the actual protective tariff will exceed its nominal level.

After World War II, the role of non-tariff methods began to grow. This is due to several reasons.

First, since the 1950s as a result of multilateral negotiations, it was possible to significantly reduce the average world level of customs duties. And the expansion of non-tariff methods was partly a response to this decline. Secondly, increased competition in world markets has forced many countries to take measures to protect domestic producers. Thirdly, the sharp increase in imports in many countries increased the trade deficit, which seriously worsened the financial position of these countries. Fourth, the aggravation of the problem of unemployment has also contributed to the strengthening of non-tariff methods to prevent the closure of domestic enterprises under the blows of foreign competitors.

Measures of non-tariff regulation are very diverse. Some of them can be attributed to the legitimate functions of the state, for example, import quotas. Others are aimed at discriminating against foreign trade partners. For example, Colombia forced steel importers to buy a certain amount of more expensive domestic steel for each ton of imported products.

The most common type of non-tariff barriers are import quotas. An import quota is the amount of a foreign good that can be brought into a country in a given period of time. For example, the import quota for Japanese cars in the US is 2.3 million units per year. In addition, the United States has import quotas for meat and dairy products and tobacco.

What are the reasons for using quotas? First, the quota allows you to fix the cost of imports. This is especially important in the face of fierce foreign competition and a passive trade balance. Secondly, quotas enable the government to pursue a more flexible foreign trade policy. Because international trade agreements do not allow higher tariffs, it is easier to impose stricter import quotas.

The impact of quotas on the domestic market depends on the level of demand and the volume of production of domestic producers. If quotas do not cover the total demand in the domestic market, then they not only reduce imports, but also lead to an increase in domestic prices compared to world prices.

In addition to quotas, special barriers are now quite widely used: strict requirements for the technical safety of goods, sanitary and environmental standards, requirements for tare and packaging. Today, about 27% of all imports of industrially developed capitalist countries fall under the influence of non-tariff barriers, in the USA - 42% of imports.

Export promotion occupies a special place in the system of protectionist measures. This is due to the increased dependence of the country's economic growth on participation in international trade. The growth of exports characterizes the economic progress of the country and contributes to the improvement of the standard of living of the population. The accumulation of foreign exchange reserves creates conditions for the implementation of various economic development programs.

With regard to export promotion, the policy of subsidizing is most often applied. Export subsidies allow firms to reduce the cost of exports and strengthen their positions in the markets of other countries. The state also bears the costs of sales promotion export goods by organizing advertising and providing other marketing services. The tax system may also provide for the establishment of tax incentives for exporters depending on the volume of exports. On average, export subsidies are small, but for individual goods as well as firms they can be significant. In general, export subsidies in the manufacturing industry of developed countries do not exceed 1% of the value of exports. Agriculture uses the largest percentage of subsidies. The leading capitalist countries are carrying out state programs to support farmers' incomes through guaranteed purchases of surplus agricultural products. They also pay bonuses for refusing to sow certain areas. In particular, the countries of the European Community, in order to reduce the budgetary costs of supporting farmers, sold surplus products at a loss at low prices. Soviet Union.

In addition to subsidizing, dumping is one of the methods of foreign trade policy. Dumping is international price discrimination. In this situation, the exporting firm sells its product in one foreign market cheaper than in another. Robbery dumping (predutory dumping) is called the temporary establishment low prices, aimed at ousting a competitor from this market, with the subsequent restoration of the price level. Persistent dumping continues indefinitely.

Foreign trade in goods

Foreign trade is an international exchange of goods, works, services, information, results of intellectual activity, including exclusive rights to them (intellectual property). According to Russian legislation, a commodity is any movable property (including all types of energy) and aircraft, sea vessels, inland navigation vessels, space objects classified as real estate that are the subject of foreign trade activities.

Exclusive rights to the results of intellectual activity (intellectual property) include:

Exclusive rights to literary, artistic and scientific works, programs for electronic computers and databases;
related rights: to inventions, industrial designs, utility models, as well as means of individualization of a legal entity equated to the results of intellectual activity (company names, trademarks, service marks) and other results of intellectual activity and means of individualization, the protection of which is provided for by law.

Unlike goods, services in most cases do not take a materialized form. The only exceptions are certain types of services, such as computer software products, various documentation, etc.

Foreign trade in goods is divided into different groups depending on the subject of foreign trade and the nature of the implementation of foreign trade operations:

1. Trade in fuel and raw materials and agricultural goods.

A raw material is a complex that combines materials directly extracted from the environment (oil, ores, timber, etc.) and semi-finished products, that is, materials that have been processed, but not consumed as finished products, but acting, in turn, raw materials for the production of finished products (metals, chemical products, etc.). All diverse types of raw materials are divided into two large groups: industrial and agricultural.

Depending on the forms of international trade, commodities are divided into exchange (cereals, sugar, natural rubber, cotton, certain types of non-ferrous metals) and non-exchange (oil, natural gas, coal, ferrous and non-ferrous metal ores, timber, pulp and paper and other goods). ). Transactions for goods of the first group are concluded at the relevant commodity exchanges, and the sale of goods of the second group is carried out under short- and long-term contracts.

2. Trade in machines and equipment.

Machinery and equipment in foreign trade practice are sold and bought in the form of ready-to-use products (cars, machine tools, etc.): in disassembled form for subsequent assembly in the buyer's country: in the form of units, parts and individual parts within the framework of cooperation agreements or as spare parts for Maintenance and repair of previously delivered equipment in the form of complete facilities (workshops and sections of industrial enterprises, finished enterprises, power plants, etc.).

Each of these types of supplies has its own characteristics:

Trade in finished products intended and suitable for direct final consumption is the most common type of supply of various types of vehicles, general engineering products, technical goods for cultural and household purposes. Its feature is that the product is transferred to the buyer in a form ready for operation. Delivery is carried out directly by the manufacturer or through intermediaries of various kinds at world or contractual yens. The seller enterprise provides pre-sale service of products, which consists in re-preservation of products after transportation, giving them a marketable appearance, their adjustment and testing, issuing a warranty certificate, fine-tuning products taking into account the interests of the importer, as well as after-sales service. Payments for products can be made in the exporter's currency, the importer's currency or in the currency of a third country;
trade in disassembled products is intended for the subsequent progressive assembly of finished products in importing countries and is carried out in markets protected by high customs barriers from the import of finished products. Import of disassembled products is usually subject to lower customs duties and has a number of advantages associated with the use of local cheap labor in their assembly (“screwdriver technology”), more preferential taxation, lower land rent, etc. Export of a number of goods in assembled the form is simply objectively impossible (reactors, port cranes, etc.);
trade in complete equipment involves the supply of technological complexes with a full range of services for their design, construction, adjustment, preparation for operation in local conditions. A variety of complete deliveries is the execution of contracts on a turnkey basis, which provides for a set of works, from the preparation of a feasibility study, the construction of an object, and ending with its commissioning, and payment after its acceptance by the customer. Such agreements also provide for the supply of necessary materials and tools, training of local personnel, assistance in organizing and managing the production process, and ensuring the operation of the facility during the warranty period.

3. One of the varieties of foreign trade in goods is counter deliveries. They are export-import transactions, the terms of which provide for counter obligations of exporters to purchase goods from importers for a part or the full value of the exported products.

The main forms of counter deliveries are:

Barter transactions representing a non-currency, balanced, value-based exchange of goods at contractual or world prices. main reason they are the lack or lack of convertible currency among partners and its instability;
counter purchases of exporters for a part of the cost of the supplied goods;
compensation agreements under which the repayment of a financial or commodity loan provided by a party supplying technological equipment is carried out by the supply of goods produced on this equipment, or by the supply of goods produced by other enterprises;
repurchase of obsolete products when selling newer models and modifications. At the same time, the residual value of returned products is included in the price of new products: operations with tolling raw materials, involving the processing of raw materials mined in one country by the production facilities of another country with payment for the cost of processing and transportation by additional supplies of raw materials. Such operations are justified when there are huge stocks of raw materials or waste and there are no or insufficient capacities for their processing.

In any form of counter deliveries, a valuation of the transferred products is necessary in order to create conditions for an equivalent exchange, as well as for customs accounting, determining insurance payable in case of loss of goods, and evaluating claims. Penalties in this case are carried out by reducing supplies or additional supplies. With advance deliveries, the enterprise delivers its goods to a foreign counterparty in advance. The proceeds are credited to a special conditional account of the western partner, which then delivers its goods to the original (advance) supplier and receives payment from the above account.

Thus, the receipt of payment by the Western firm for the goods shipped by it is guaranteed, and the advance supplier, if the Western partner fails to fulfill counter obligations, freely receives the proceeds back.

Foreign trade in services has a number of features in comparison with trade in goods.

First, services, unlike goods, are produced and consumed in most cases simultaneously and are not subject to storage. Therefore, the provision of various services is based mainly on direct contracts between their producers and consumers and does not involve the use of intermediaries.

Secondly, services play an important and growing role in increasing the competitiveness of goods in the foreign market. The impact of services on trade in knowledge-intensive goods, which require significant amounts of maintenance, information and advisory services, is especially great.

Thirdly, foreign trade in services encounters more barriers than trade in goods, since services are usually more protected by the state from foreign competition.

Fourth, not all types of services, unlike goods, are involved in international economic circulation. This mainly concerns services that come mainly for personal consumption (utilities, domestic services etc.).

Foreign trade in services includes various types of foreign economic activity, both traditional and modern (related to the export of new technologies, knowledge and experience), among which the most common are the following:

1. Export of transport services or international transportation intended for the movement of goods (cargo) and people (passengers) between two or more countries, that is, in international communications. There are direct international messages served by one mode of transport, and mixed (combined) messages, in which two or more modes of transport are sequentially used. International transportation carried out by national carriers of various countries, using for this their rolling stock (sea and river vessels, aircraft, wagons, cars), as well as transport networks (railway, road, river, air) and transport hubs (sea and river ports, airports, railway stations and bus stations, cargo and passenger terminals).

In international trade, various types of basic terms for the delivery of goods are used, taking into account the transport factor in the foreign trade price. They regulate the obligations of the parties to ensure the transportation of goods at various stages of their movement from the warehouse of the supplier to the warehouse of the recipient, provide for the distribution of transport and other costs associated, in particular, with the risk of accidental loss or damage to goods along the way.

Currently, when concluding contracts, the Incoterms rules are applied, which include the following basic conditions and their interpretation:

"Free enterprise" means that it is the seller's responsibility to present the goods to the buyer directly at his warehouse (ie, factory, mine, plantation, etc.). The buyer bears all costs and risks associated with the delivery of the goods to the destination;
"Free at Ship's Side" (PAS) (named port of shipment) implies that the seller's obligations are deemed to be fulfilled when the goods are delivered on board the ship. Further costs and risks are borne by the buyer, including for clearing the goods from duties and obtaining an export license and other similar documents;
Free on Board (FOB) (named port of shipment) obliges the seller to obtain, at his own expense, an export license or other document authorizing the export of the goods, and to bear all costs necessary for loading them on board the vessel, including loading costs. The cost of shipping the goods is borne by the buyer;
Cost and Freight (CFR) (named port of destination) obliges the seller to pay the costs and freight for bringing the goods to the port of destination, but the risk of loss or damage to the goods passes to the buyer at the port of shipment;
Cost, Insurance and Freight (CIF) (named port of destination) is the same as CFR, but the seller undertakes the additional obligation to insure the goods against accidental loss;
"Delivery free ship" (DES) (named port of destination) means that the seller bears all costs associated with bringing the goods to the named port. Further costs are borne by the buyer, including payment of customs duties and fees;
"Delivered free-to-quay" (DEQ) (duty paid... named port) obliges the seller to place the goods at the disposal of the buyer after payment of customs duties and taxes for import at the port of destination. Further costs and risks are borne by the buyer;
“Delivered Free-Front” (DAF) (name of border point) assumes that the seller bears all costs and risks until the goods are placed at the disposal of the buyer at the agreed place at the border, including payment of customs duties, taxes and fees in the country of departure of the goods;
"Delivered Duty Paid" (DDP) (name of destination in the country of the importer) imposes a maximum of obligations on the seller, including the conclusion of contracts with carriers of various modes of transport, the execution of transport and other documents, the completion of customs formalities, obtaining export and import licenses;
Free Carrier (FCA) (name of destination) is intended for use in intermodal transport. The seller is obliged at his own expense to deliver the goods to the point specified in the contract and hand them over to the carrier, as well as obtain an export license. The buyer must conclude a contract with the carrier for the carriage at his expense of the goods to the final destination. The risk of accidental loss or damage to the goods passes from the seller to the buyer at the time of its transfer to the carrier;
"Freight Paid To..." (CPT) (named destination) obliges the seller to bear the costs of paying freight to destination and obtaining an export license. The buyer must pay her other costs associated with the delivery of the goods;
"Freight and insurance paid to..." (CIP) (named destination) means that the seller, in addition to paying the freight and export license, must provide transport insurance against the risk of loss or damage to the goods in transit.

2. International tourism makes the largest contribution to international trade in services and accounts for about 25%. The basis of the tourism industry is formed by enterprises organizing tourist trips and selling vouchers and tours, providing services for the accommodation and meals of tourists (hotels, campsites, etc.), their movement around the country, as well as government, information, advertising, tourism research and training for her personnel, enterprises for the production and sale of goods of tourist demand. Investments made at a time in the construction of hotels, transport hubs and arteries, places of leisure, etc. quickly pay off and, under certain conditions, bring a stable and high income. There are three main types of international tourism: recreational, scientific and business.

3. Trading in licenses is the main form of transfer of technology and is the transfer, under certain conditions, to an entity of the rights to use an invention, know-how, trademarks, etc. for a specified period for an appropriate fee. If technical innovations are not protected by a patent, then we are talking about a non-patent license, which accounts for the bulk of licensed trade. The most widespread are license agreements that provide for a comprehensive international technological exchange with the provision of know-how and other services for the implementation of the transferred technology. The license agreement clearly and unambiguously defines the type of license (non-patent or patent), the scope of rights to use the transferred technology (full, simple or exclusive), the scope and boundaries of the technology, the duration of the license agreement, the form of payment (royalties or lump-sum payments). Royalties are set in the form of fixed rates, which are paid by the licensee at agreed intervals during the duration of the license agreement, that is, they are periodic deductions. The lump-sum payment is a one-time remuneration for the right to use the subject of the license agreement until profit is received from its use, and is the actual price of the license. During the term of the license agreement, the receiving party (licensee) is obliged to inform the seller (licensor) of all changes in technology.

4. International engineering is a complex of industrial, commercial, scientific and technical services related to the design of industrial enterprises, scientific and technical centers, infrastructure, etc.

Engineering services are provided by specialized firms or industrial, construction and other companies and are divided into two main groups:

A) services related to the preparation of the technological process, including pre-project, design, post-project and special services;
b) services related to the optimization of operation processes, enterprise management and product sales. Engineering services are paid by agreement: either by the time in the form of payments at hourly or daily rates, or after the fact (corresponding costs plus remuneration are reimbursed). In construction, as a rule, payment for engineering services is set as a percentage of the cost of work.

5. International leasing is a long-term lease of production equipment, vehicles, computer technology, warehouses. This is a specific form of financing capital investments, in which an enterprise that does not have foreign exchange funds to acquire the corresponding object in full ownership gets the opportunity to operate it. Leasing operations provide certain benefits to all parties involved. Lease payments are generally considered operating expenses and are therefore not taxable. In addition, the tenant has the opportunity, after the expiration of the contract, to redeem the leased item at the residual value into his property or conclude a new license agreement for new, more modern equipment, while avoiding losses associated with obsolescence of means of production. At the same time, customs duty is levied on the residual value of the purchased equipment, which means serious savings for the tenant. According to the rules of the International Monetary Fund, liabilities arising from leasing are not included in the volume of the state's external debt. Therefore, he finds support from the state.

International leasing includes direct and indirect foreign leasing. With direct foreign leasing, lease relations arise between legal entities of different countries. Direct foreign leasing is divided into export (in which the leasing company buys equipment from a national company and then presents it to the lessee abroad) and import (when the lessor purchases equipment from a foreign company, then provides it to the domestic lessee). In indirect foreign leasing, the lessee and the lessor are legal entities of one party, but the capital of the lessor is partially owned by foreign persons or the lessor is a subsidiary of a foreign multinational corporation.

Along with long-term lease (leasing), short-term lease (rating) and medium-term lease (hairing) are also used in international trade.

Short-term rentals are rare in international practice. The subject of a rating contract is usually vehicles, tourism and other non-durable goods. Medium-term lease contracts are more common. The subject of such contracts may be vehicles, road construction machines, assembly equipment, agricultural machines.

The lease contracts fix the retention of ownership rights to the leased item by the lessor and contain obligations for the operation and maintenance of the leased items, the obligations of tenants not to disclose technical secrets and other conditions similar to those contained in sales contracts (force majeure, etc.) . A leasing contract is always concluded for a certain period of time, with the tenant being given the right to extend the lease term or buy the leased item.

Foreign trade operations carried out in international trade include the following main types: export, import, re-export and re-import operations.

Export transactions include actions for the sale and export of goods abroad for their transfer to the property of a foreign counterparty. Export may also include the sale of goods and services to foreign persons operating in the territory of the exporting country.

Import operations are the activities of purchasing and importing foreign goods for their further sale in the importer's domestic market.

Re-export operations are understood as the export abroad of previously imported goods that have not been processed in the re-exporting country. In this case, it is allowed to carry out additional operations that do not change the name of the product. Thus, a product can be prepared for re-export based on the requirements of the countries of consumption: special marking can be applied, packaging can be changed, etc. However, the excess of the cost of additional processing operations of the product over half of its export price is the basis for turning such operations into export ones. An example of a re-export operation is the purchase of components abroad with their further re-export as part of complete equipment. Re-export can take place when selling goods through exchanges and auctions, when implementing large projects in free economic zones, or is carried out with the aim of making a profit on the difference in prices. Re-export does not include the transit of goods through a country.

Re-import operations include purchase operations with import from abroad of goods previously exported and not subjected to processing abroad. Re-import is considered, in particular, the return from abroad of goods that the buyer refused, or the return of goods previously delivered to intermediaries, but not sold by them abroad. Re-import does not include the return of goods that were previously exported abroad for consignment, exhibitions, fairs, under the terms of temporary import and lease, since their export was not accompanied by a sale.

Development of foreign trade

Taking into account competitive advantages and weaknesses Russia can try to determine the medium-term prospects for the development of its foreign trade. Obviously, in Russian exports, fuel and raw materials will remain the main position for a long time to come. However, for Russia it is quite realistic to deepen the degree of processing of raw materials and, on this basis, increase the share of exports of such goods as cellulose, chemical products, fertilizers, etc.

There are opportunities for stabilizing and expanding traditional engineering exports, which include cars and trucks, power and road equipment, equipment for geological exploration, etc. Taking into account the availability of a fairly cheap labor force, it is very promising to create assembly plants from components imported into Russia, oriented to the domestic and foreign markets.

There are certain prospects for expanding the export of science-intensive products, which is closely related to the conversion and commercialization of defense complex enterprises (in particular, the export of aerospace technologies and services, laser technology, equipment for nuclear power plants, and modern weapons).

With the development of domestic agriculture and light industry Obviously, the share of consumer goods in Russian imports will decrease and the share of investment goods - machinery and equipment - will increase.

The prospects for the development of Russia's foreign trade largely depend on the realization of the competitive advantages of its industrial complex. In addition to raw materials, these include: a fairly high level of skilled labor with its comparative cheapness, as well as significant amounts of accumulated basic production assets and funds of universal processing equipment, which makes it possible to reduce the capital intensity of technological modernization of production; availability of unique advanced developments and technologies in a number of sectors of the economy, mainly related to the military-industrial complex.

However, the use of these advantages is constrained by a number of reasons. This is the underdevelopment of the financial and organizational infrastructure of foreign trade cooperation; lack of a developed system of state support for exports; difficulty adapting to conditions mass production based on competitive technologies concentrated in the defense complex and intended for small-scale or single-piece production; low production efficiency and an extremely high share of material costs, even in advanced industrial sectors.

The structure of Russian foreign trade was previously not typical for a developed country. At present, these are mainly fuel and energy, simple chemical and petrochemical goods, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and weapons.

Significant changes have taken place in the commodity structure of Russian imports. The share of investment goods in it decreased, while the share of consumer goods increased, accounting for about 40% of total imports.

With a population of almost 150 million, with significant energy resources, sufficiently highly skilled labor resources at a reduced cost of labor, Russia is a huge market for goods, services and capital. However, the degree of realization of this potential in the foreign economic sphere is very modest. Russia's share in world exports was about 1.3%. The state of Russian foreign trade is still painfully affected by the sharp reduction in economic ties with other former Soviet republics as a result of the collapse of the USSR and the curtailment of trade with the former socialist countries - members of the CMEA, which were the main consumers of domestic engineering products.

But if the role of Russia in world trade is small, then for her the importance of the foreign economic sphere is very significant. The value of Russia's export quota, calculated on the basis of the purchasing power parity of the ruble against the dollar, is about 10%, dividing between far and near abroad in a ratio of approximately 5:1. Foreign trade remains an important source of investment goods, and also plays an important role in supplying the Russian population with food and various consumer goods.

Foreign economic trade

The term "foreign economic activity (FEA)" is commonly understood as the process of implementing foreign economic relations, including trade, joint ventures and the provision of services. Currently, foreign economic activity plays an important role in the functioning of the national economy, representing the main way of integrating Russia into world economy, as well as acting as one of the most significant sources of state revenue.

Among the many existing forms of foreign economic activity, one of the most significant should be singled out - foreign trade, which is understood as trade between countries, consisting of exports and imports of goods and services, carried out mainly through commercial transactions formalized by foreign trade contracts.

The concept of "foreign trade activity (FTA)" is defined in the Federal Law "On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activity" as an activity for the implementation of transactions in the field of foreign trade.

The mentioned law also distinguishes four groups of objects of foreign trade:

Foreign trade in goods - import or export of goods;
- foreign trade in services - the provision of services / performance of works, including the production, distribution, marketing and delivery of these services / works;
- foreign trade in information - information acts either as an independent object of foreign trade activity, or as an integral addition to other objects of foreign trade activity;
- foreign trade in intellectual property - the transfer of exclusive rights to intellectual property or the granting of the right to use intellectual property.

Speaking about the structure of foreign trade, we immediately recall the existence of such concepts as the import and export of goods, in other words, the import and export of goods.

The main trading partners of Russia in export were: the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, China, Turkey and others. As for the goods themselves, Russia should be noted as largest exporter military weapons, products of the fuel and energy complex, machinery and equipment, wheat and other grains.

In today's unstable and unstable economic environment, ensuring a high level of efficiency of foreign economic activity requires a continuous increase in efforts to improve it. Despite the differences, all forms of foreign economic activity are interconnected, which leads to the implementation of foreign economic activity as a single uninterrupted process. The progress of foreign trade created the prerequisites for the emergence of other forms of foreign economic activity, the development of which led to the transformation of the latter into the most important subsystem of the national economy.

Foreign trade - trade between countries, consisting of export (export) and import (import) of goods and services. Foreign trade is carried out mainly through commercial transactions formalized by foreign trade contracts.

Foreign economic activity is an important part of international economic relations. It stimulates an increase in the competitiveness of national products, a reduction in domestic prices for goods and an increase in the efficiency of national production through the use of advanced engineering and technological solutions, contributing to the transition to a new technological level. Foreign trade as a part of foreign economic activity characterizes not only the system of commodity circulation, but also the sphere of interrelated state interests of different countries in building a mutually beneficial partnership of counterparties, participants in foreign trade activities. International trade reflects the total volume of foreign trade of most countries of the world community, and the total amount of sales of goods and services within its framework forms international trade. Foreign trade operations in the international market are the interaction of commodity producers and commodity-consumers of different countries, the result of which is the value of the volume of foreign trade of states. Foreign economic activity is a significant component for the Russian economy and the system of foreign economic relations: exports and imports prevail in the formation of Russia's balance of payments, providing a positive balance not only for current operations, but also for the basic balance.

Measures of foreign trade

Limiting the admission of certain types of goods of foreign origin to public procurement in order to protect the domestic market and Russian manufacturers. Unilateral measures of non-tariff regulation of imports. The introduction of bans on the import and circulation in Russia of certain categories of goods. Special economic measures to ensure the security of the Russian Federation.

Administrative measures of state regulation of foreign trade activities, involving a direct (administrative) impact on the subjects of international trade, determine the structure of the national market of the Russian Federation, protecting it not only from excessive import supplies of goods, but also from a potential shortage of goods in the domestic market of the country. These include: import licensing; import quotas. Licensing of imports as an instrument of state foreign trade regulation, according to the international trade practice that has developed in Russia, occupies a leading place in the system of administrative measures to protect sectors of the Russian economy from foreign competition. It is a quantitative restriction in the form of a right or permission from authorized government bodies to import goods into the customs territory of the Russian Federation. As you know, the practice of foreign trade activities has developed two forms of import licensing: automatic licensing of imports; non-automatic import licensing. Automatic import licensing is an administrative procedure used when importing goods into Russia, when approval of an application for a license is given in all cases without exception.

It applies subject to the following preconditions:

1) the presence of an application, i.e. official application to the authorized government body in writing with a request to obtain an import license agreed with the country - the exporter of the goods;
2) any person, enterprise or institution that fulfills the legal requirements of an authorized government authority to carry out import operations, including the import of goods subject to automatic licensing, is equally entitled to apply for and obtain an import license;
3) Automatic licensing of imports may be maintained as long as the circumstances giving rise to its introduction prevail and the underlying administrative objectives cannot be achieved in a more appropriate manner.

Temporary restrictions on the import of goods of an administrative nature can, in essence, include declarative (automatic) licensing of imports of certain categories of goods (for monitoring purposes), such as: carpets and textile floor coverings originating from the EU; color TVs; white sugar, raw sugar, starch syrup. It is assumed, and should be supported, that automatic licensing will help limit the import of cheap and low-quality imported products into the Russian Federation and thereby temporarily protect the interests of domestic producers. Non-automatic import licensing, as a diametrically opposed form to automatic import licensing, in our opinion, has a number of limitations.

In particular:

1) non-automatic import licensing should not restrict or disrupt the importation of goods into the customs territory of the Russian Federation in addition to the impact caused by the imposition of this restriction;
2) in the event of the introduction of non-automatic import licensing for purposes other than quantitative restrictions on the import of goods into the Russian customs territory, all participants in foreign trade operations must be admitted to the information necessary and sufficient to understand the basis for granting and/or distributing import licenses;
3) procedures for non-automatic import licensing in terms of scope and duration should be appropriate to the measure for which they are used, and administratively should not be more onerous than necessary to maintain the applied measure.

Automatic and non-automatic licensing of imports is formalized by a special document called a license, which establishes the procedure and contains permission to move a certain amount of goods across the customs border of the Russian Federation.

Quoting (contingenting) of imports as a specific instrument of state foreign trade regulation has not yet found an adequate place in Russia in the system of non-tariff measures to protect sectors of the national economy from foreign competition. Suffice it to say that limiting the quantity of goods in the form of an import quota became somewhat widespread in Russian foreign trade practice only in the second half of the 1990s. In particular, attempts to introduce a quota were made in relation to the import of textile and alcoholic products, as well as ethyl alcohol produced from food raw materials.

Meanwhile, the import quota (contingent) as a special measure to protect the domestic market, affecting directly the quantitative and cost of imported goods, has a number of obvious and proven advantages in practice.

First of all, the import quota guarantees that the import of goods into the customs territory of the Russian Federation will not exceed the specified value, since it deprives foreign companies of the opportunity to expand the supply of products by Russian market by reducing export prices and thus allows domestic producers who are afraid of price competition to retain a certain share in the domestic market.

The accumulated international and domestic experience in the customs and tariff regulation of foreign trade activities, as well as the above analysis, allow us to identify a number of tools for protecting the domestic market from undesirable competition from foreign companies.

The first tool: non-tariff measures aimed primarily at creating equal conditions for competition in the national (domestic) market. The application of special protective measures, anti-dumping measures and compensatory measures will ensure "selective" protection of the interests of domestic producers in cases of violation of the normal conditions of competition by increased, dumped or subsidized imports of goods into the customs territory of the Russian Federation, causing significant damage (or a real threat of significant damage) to those or other specific sectors of the Russian economy. The procedures for such measures should be simple, "transparent" and well-tested in practice by objective criteria, and the application of other non-tariff measures to regulate import operations, such as standards, requirements for packaging, labeling, etc., should be associated solely with security purposes, protection of life and health of consumers.

When implementing non-tariff measures, first of all, it is necessary to strive for transparency, openness and predictability of their application. Therefore, it is advisable to create an effective mechanism for a special judicial (or administrative) resolution of disputes that systematically arise between economic operators and executive authorities in connection with decisions affecting business interests in the field of foreign economic relations. At the same time, administrative regulatory measures must be reduced to a reasonable optimum, ensuring reasonable and reliable state control over economic activity.

The second tool for the implementation of foreign trade and economic policy: the principle of reciprocity within the framework of generally recognized norms and rules of international trade. The best conditions for the access of foreign goods to the customs territory of the Russian Federation should be ensured primarily for those countries that provide domestic producers with conditions comparable in terms of volume and economic effect for the delivery of goods to their national markets. From this point of view, it is obvious that there is a need to revise approaches to reforming and developing the contractual and legal framework for foreign economic relations both with third countries and with integration international organizations.

The third instrument is the formation of a system of control over the provision of Russia's rights arising from bilateral and multilateral international trade agreements. This tool is necessary for an adequate response to any cases of violation of such rights, discrimination of Russian enterprises, their goods and services in foreign markets. Russian economic operators should receive equal opportunities to protect their economic interests.

The fourth tool: targeted support for structural changes in Russian exports. It should be focused on those sectors of the national economy that have real or potential competitiveness.

Currently, these include aircraft manufacturing, commercial space launch services, as well as some other science- and capital-intensive industries. Such support should be provided in forms that exclude the possibility of legal use of protectionist instruments by trading partners.

And, finally, the fifth tool: the implementation of the "dictatorship" of the law. The problems of changing existing and developing new legislation are so large-scale that, according to preliminary estimates of specialists, it will take at least 3 years to bring legislative framework foreign trade activities in Russia in accordance with the requirements of the WTO.

The model of interaction between Russia and the global world market that has developed to date does not correspond to either its potential competitive capabilities or its long-term economic interests. In this regard, the issue of Russia's accession to the World Trade Organization is of fundamental importance. Entering the WTO, Russia sets itself a number of important goals. First, Russia seeks to become an equal trading partner on the world market and create more favorable conditions for its exports. At the same time, it is necessary to proceed from the fact that as a result of accession to the WTO, the problems of discriminatory attitudes towards Russia by Western countries, which do not always recognize Russia as a country with a market economy, should be resolved. Secondly, Russia is interested in the WTO system of maintaining discipline in international trade, including the dispute resolution mechanism. Thirdly, accession to the WTO will allow Russia to transfer trade and economic relations with other countries and groups of countries to an equal, predictable, long-term economic and legal basis. And, finally, fourthly, the process of joining the WTO will create additional incentives for the harmonization of Russian legislation and bringing it into line with international requirements. In a more concrete sense, the conditions for accession to the WTO are a compromise worked out in the course of negotiations, a consensus reached through mutual concessions and mutual, often tough, commitments. Russia faces a difficult task - to determine not only national economic interests and priorities, obligations and conditions that guarantee national economic security, but also to be able to defend them in the course of difficult negotiations, in the conditions of the economic pressure of Western countries that have already manifested themselves, their attempts to achieve unilateral market opening, non-reciprocal concessions, unwillingness to recognize the fact that many enterprises and sectors of Russian industry have comparative advantages that allow them to export goods at competitive prices and significantly influence the formation of world prices.

Foreign trade policy

Foreign trade is trade between countries, consisting of the export and import of goods and services. Its volume is calculated by summing up the volumes of exports and imports. Export - the sale of goods, providing for its export abroad. Import - the purchase of goods, providing for its import from abroad. Export and import are two key concepts that characterize the international movement of goods, which are used for a comprehensive analysis of foreign trade and for practical purposes. The total amount of exports and imports is the foreign trade turnover with foreign countries. Exports and imports of goods for which payments are made during a given period form the balance of trade. The balance of trade is only part of the balance of payments. The balance of payments includes the sum of all monetary payments made by a given country to other countries for a certain period, and the sum of all monetary receipts received by it during the same period from other countries. It is possible to have a passive balance of trade, i.e., an excess of imports of goods over exports, and at the same time an active balance of payments, i.e., an excess of money receipts from abroad over payments to other countries.

There are a number of indicators characterizing the degree of a country's involvement in foreign economic relations. For example, the export quota shows the ratio of the value of exports to the value of GDP. The volume of exports per capita of a given country characterizes the degree of "openness" of the economy. Export potential (export opportunities) is the share of products that a given country can sell on the world market without harming its own economy (minus domestic needs).

It should be noted that the export orientation of production makes it dependent on changes in world prices, fluctuations in supply and demand, competition in the world market. Such dependence is especially dangerous for countries with a narrow specialization of the economy, the development of which is predetermined by export earnings. Import dependence is no less fraught with dangerous consequences. Rising world prices, a trade deficit, restrictions on foreign trade deliveries in the exporting country - all this can adversely affect an economy that is overly dependent on imports. Production created with the participation of foreign capital and on the basis of imported technology can lead to dependence on foreign economic centers.

The country's foreign trade is regulated by the state in the course of implementing foreign trade policy. When developing and implementing foreign trade policy, two fundamental approaches are used. The first, free trade, implies freedom of trade, its implementation without restrictions; the second, protectionism, justifies state intervention in international trade in order to promote its growth, taking into account the interests of the national economy. Instability in world trade, world economic crises force countries to use the policy of trade protectionism. Previously, protectionism relied mainly on the tariff and customs system, but after the Second World War, the importance of non-tariff barriers increased sharply, the number of which is constantly growing. The purpose of non-tariff barriers is the general restriction of imports through trade discrimination of individual countries. Non-tariff barriers include the state monopoly of foreign trade, provision of state consumption only with domestically produced goods, complex currency control over the import of goods, sanitary standards for food products, etc. In recent years, such a type of non-tariff restriction as import quotas has become most widespread. , i.e., a quantitative restriction on the volume of foreign products annually permitted by the state for import into a given country. At the same time, the state issues a limited number of import licenses and prohibits unlicensed imports.

Foreign Trade Methods

Methods of international trade are ways to carry out a trade transaction between its participants, both in one country and in different countries of the world.

Usually international trade consists of exports and imports, but there are six methods of international trade:

Straight;
indirect;
cooperative;
counter;
institutional;
electronic.

Direct export or import is an international trade transaction directly between the proposed party (producer, seller) and the acquired party (buyer, consumer, user) of a trade relationship.

Indirect export or import - the involvement of an intermediary to complete an international trade transaction.

Cooperative export or import - the conclusion of an international trade transaction involving a special intermediary, which is an organizational form of business formed by a group of initiators of this agreement, if the transaction by each member of the specified group individually seems inefficient, impossible or rather risky.

These three methods are determined by the degree of involvement of export-import operations in direct execution, that is, how the main operations are carried out (using their own resources, with the involvement of an intermediary or joint efforts of interested parties). The counter method is trading, which involves the preparation, support and completion of such international commercial transactions that use hard currency in making payments, differs in the method and procedure for the implementation of international transactions.

The institutional method involves conducting operations with the involvement of special institutions: international auctions, exchanges and auctions, which establish the quality and price of goods sold through them.

E-commerce - involves the conduct of international trade transactions via the World Wide Web.

The method of international trade is a way of carrying out a trade exchange (trade operation or trade transaction) between its participants, who are residents of both different (direct method) and one (indirect and cooperative methods) countries. Despite the fact that there are usually two main methods of trading in international trade practice, it is customary to consider six methods.

Direct export (import) - the completion of an international trade transaction directly between the manufacturer/seller and the buyer/consumer/user.

Its advantages:

Reduces production costs;
reduces the risk and dependence of performance on possible dishonesty and incompetence of intermediaries;
allows the manufacturing company to constantly be in the foreign market, take into account its changes and respond in a timely manner.

Indirect export (import) - an international trade transaction through an intermediary.

Its advantages:

The intermediary has a higher commercial qualification;
there is no need to concentrate financial and intellectual resources at the first stage of entering the foreign market.

However, taking into account the reality of modern international business, they add another method, the third one, which, originating in the field of small and medium-sized businesses, occupies a middle position between the first two (classical).

Cooperative export (import) - the completion of an international trade transaction through a special intermediary, which is a certain organizational form of business created by a group of initiators of this transaction, the completion of which by each individual member of this group seems impossible, too risky and / or economically inefficient.

Countertrade - stands out as a method due to the peculiarities of preparing, accompanying and completing such international commercial transactions, payment for which is carried out without the use of (hard) currency or is only partially covered by the currency, i.e., it differs markedly and is isolated by the method and procedure for the implementation of international transactions.

International auctions, exchanges and auctions - involve the conduct of trading operations through special institutions. Taking into account the fact that all of the listed institutions have a unifying function of establishing the quality and price of the goods sold through them, based on the ratio of supply and demand and the assessments of buyers, some authors propose calling this method institutional competitive.

The sixth method was developed only in the last decade of the 20th century, when such a main resource, or a sufficient condition for globalization, as global communication systems, the information part of which was realized in the creation of the World Wide Web - the Internet, matures and undergoes qualitative changes. This is electronic commerce, or e-commerce.

World foreign trade

World trade is the exchange of goods and services between state-national economies. The development of world trade has led to the emergence of a world market for goods. The world market is a set of interconnected and interacting with each other national markets of individual countries participating in the international division of labor and connected with each other by a system of international economic relations.

International trade grows and develops in connection with the profitability and expediency of the international division of labor, the concentration of production of certain products in individual countries with a view to their subsequent sale on the world market and thereby satisfying the needs of other countries that create demand for this product.

If earlier the main prerequisite for international trade was the uneven distribution of resources between different countries, today differences in the efficiency of the use of resources and the technologies used are becoming increasingly important.

Development of international trade:

Allows to overcome the limitations of the national resource base;
expands the capacity of the domestic market and establishes links between the national market and the world market;
provides additional income due to the difference between national and international production costs;
expands the production possibilities of countries (there is a shift in the production possibilities curve to the right);
leads to a deepening of the specialization of production and, on this basis, to an increase in the efficiency of the use of resources and an increase in the volume of production.

World trade is formed on the basis of foreign trade carried out by different countries. The term "foreign trade" refers to trade with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

The main differences between foreign trade and domestic:

Goods and services are less mobile globally than domestically;
in calculations, each country uses its own national currency, hence the need to compare different currencies;
foreign trade is subject to more state control than domestic;
more buyers and more competitors.

The foreign trade of an individual country is characterized by the following indicators:

The value of trade turnover (the sum of exports and imports);
foreign trade balance - the ratio of exports and imports. If exports are greater than imports, the country has a positive foreign trade balance (trade surplus), if imports are greater than exports, it is negative (trade surplus). The difference between exports and imports constitutes net exports;
export and import quota - the share, respectively, of exports and imports in GNP. The share of imports and exports in the volume of national production shows the degree of the country's involvement in international trade, the degree of "openness" of the economy. The export quota is: 45% - in the Netherlands, 13% - in the USA, 11% - in Japan;
export potential (export opportunities) - the share of products that can be sold by a given country without harming its own economy;
structure of foreign trade: subjects (with whom the country trades) and objects (what the country trades with).

The state of the country's foreign trade, the level of its development depend primarily on the competitiveness of the goods produced, the level of which is influenced by:

Provision of the country with resources (factors of production), including such as information, technology;
capacity and requirements of the domestic market for product quality;
the level of development of links between export industries and related industries and industries;
company strategy, organizational structure, the degree of development of competition in the domestic market.

World trade is usually characterized in terms of its volume, growth rate, geographical (distribution of commodity flows between individual countries, regions) and commodity (by type of product) structure.

World trade in the modern world is developing rapidly.

The stable, sustainable growth of international trade is influenced by:

Deepening the international division of labor and the internationalization of production;
scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the creation of new sectors of the economy and accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;
active activity of transnational companies in the world market;
liberalization of international trade;
development of trade and economic integration processes, elimination of intercountry barriers, formation of free trade zones, etc.

A feature of modern world trade in terms of its geography is the increase in mutual trade between developed countries - most of the world trade is trade between the United States, Western Europe and Japan. The share of the Asia-Pacific region in the world trade turnover is growing at a high rate. Among individual countries, the United States accounts for the largest trade turnover (28% of world trade), followed by Germany, Japan, France, and Great Britain.

The structure of world trade is dominated by finished products (70%), and only 30% is accounted for by raw materials and foodstuffs. (For comparison: in the first half of the 20th century, more than 60% of trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel.) The world exchange of communications, electronic equipment, computers, components, assemblies and parts is growing at the fastest pace.

Along with goods, world trade includes the exchange of services of transport, communications, tourism, construction, insurance, etc. It should be noted the unprecedented growth of trade in services. The exchange of services in the world market is growing twice as fast as the exchange of goods.

Structure of foreign trade

The structure of foreign trade includes export and import operations.

Export is understood as a type of entrepreneurial foreign trade activity associated with the receipt by an enterprise (resident) of foreign exchange earnings as a result of the sale and export of its competitive products to a foreign partner (non-resident) outside the country.

The export operation scheme includes:

A) signing a contract for the supply of goods;
b) supply of goods.

The main products characterizing the export operation are:

Conclusion of a contract with foreign contractors (non-residents);
goods crossing the border of the country by exporters (residents);
receipt of payments by the exporter (resident) in foreign currency:
a) in the currency of the country of the importer (non-resident);
b) in the currency of the country of the exporter (resident);
c) in the currency of any third country, for example in US dollars.

The currency is determined by the terms of the trade and payment agreement.

Exports can be of two types: non-resident (when an enterprise exports surplus from time to time, offering goods to local wholesalers representing foreign firms) and active (in order to expand exports in a particular market).

In addition, export can be direct and indirect. Direct export is carried out through the export department of the enterprise located in its own country, through the sales office (branch) abroad, export salesmen, as well as through foreign distributors or agents.

Indirect export is carried out by attracting independent intermediaries-exporters, agents, and various organizations. Indirect export is most common abroad.

Two factors contribute to this:

1) the company produces all goods in its own country, therefore, it requires less investment to expand production and create its own trading apparatus abroad;
2) less degree of risk.

It should be noted that the Russian practice of export operations differs from the Western one.

This is due to the following circumstances:

A) a certain part of Russian exporters (residents) make investments abroad in the interests of creating their own infrastructure for the sale of products;
b) enterprises (residents) incur lower fractional costs in the export area compared to organizing deliveries to the domestic market; many of them are more profitable to have their own partners and standard contracts than to overcome the difficulties of establishing activities in the domestic market, associated with the almost complete lack of infrastructure for ensuring business cooperation, as well as with numerous and inefficient paper procedures;
c) exporting enterprises (residents) experience low risks compared to the volume of non-payments within the country.

Thus, as a result of these circumstances, as well as the guarantee of payments for exports, an increase in efficiency and exports is ensured, and at the same time, the exporter is “tied” to foreign markets.

Import is understood as a type of entrepreneurial activity of Russian residents associated with the purchase from non-residents and importation into the country of a resident of goods, services and technologies for subsequent sales in the domestic market.

Import operations require residents to have a thorough knowledge of the goods, to observe changes in market conditions, as well as to choose the right time to conclude contracts. Import operations are of two types: direct and indirect.

With direct imports, Russian residents buy goods directly from a foreign manufacturer (non-resident) or from an export intermediary abroad. An import transaction is carried out between a resident (domestic recipient) and a non-resident (supplier) abroad.

With indirect import Russian enterprises(residents) buy goods from a domestic merchant (individual firm) specializing in import transactions, which in turn receives goods from a foreign manufacturer (non-resident) or exporter (which may also be another resident). An import transaction is carried out between a domestic merchant specializing in the import of certain goods and a supplier abroad.

There are also two types of import regime: unlicensed import and licensed. Unlicensed import is carried out in the case when the conclusion of import contracts has no restrictions, i.e. An importer (non-resident) can, without special permission from regulatory authorities, conclude a sales agreement (contract) with a foreign supplier (other non-resident), import goods into Russia and make payment.

Licensed imports are carried out when the import of goods from abroad requires special permission from the regulatory authorities, which determine the conditions, volume and issue licenses for a certain type of goods. Only after obtaining an import license can an importer (non-resident) enter into a sales contract with a resident. To carry out an import operation, the importer (non-resident) must have the financial means to purchase goods, know potential suppliers, analyze the prices of competitors offering the desired product, conclude a contract with the most preferred exporter (resident), receive the purchased goods and pay for it. It is also important to know the methods of purchasing goods, which are of three types: wholesale, regular purchases in small lots, purchases as needed. The mechanism of an import transaction can be represented as follows.

The import operation scheme includes:

A) signing a contract for the purchase of goods;
b) supply of goods.

The main features of import operations are:

Conclusion of a contract with a foreign counterparty (non-resident);
goods crossing the border of the importing country (non-resident);
payment of the object of the contract in foreign currency.

A prerequisite for an import operation is the solvency of the importer (non-resident).

When carrying out import operations, three factors are taken into account:

1) the need for a policy of protectionism;
2) providing national consumers (enterprises and the population) with products that are not produced domestically or are produced in insufficient quantities;
3) fulfillment of the fiscal function with the help of import tariffs, i.e. providing the budget with the necessary financial resources.

Varieties of export and import operations are re-export and re-import operations.

Foreign Trade Terms

How much a country gains or loses depends on the size of its exports and imports. Their ratio is determined by the structure and degree of competitiveness of national production: industries with a strong competitive potential become exports, the rest leave room for imports. The efficiency of foreign trade operations depends not only on the physical quantities of foreign trade flows, but also on their price expression. In the world market, prices are subject to changes and market fluctuations. They dramatically change the magnitude of the results of international transactions.

The efficiency of a country's foreign economic transactions will increase when the prices of its exports rise and the prices of its imports fall. The country will be in an unfavorable situation if the price dynamics for these groups is opposite. The dependence of the country's position on the price fluctuations of the world market reflects such a concept as the terms of trade.

The terms of trade indicator is calculated both for the country as a whole and for individual foreign trade firms. It can be aggregate, i.e. cover total exports and imports, or reflect a similar ratio for individual commodities. An increase in the terms of trade indicator means an increase in the country's income from its foreign trade operations, a fall, on the contrary, means losses.

To determine the effectiveness of foreign trade operations, the terms of trade indicator is expressed as a percentage, i.e. multiply by 100. Then, if ToT > 100, the terms of trade for the country are favorable. International trade will be profitable. With ToT
The given indicator of the terms of trade is called barter, or commodity. It shows the winning or losing positions of the country from foreign trade operations. But when a country wants to decide on the total net gain from foreign trade, i.e. designate profitable terms of trade, it must multiply the commodity terms of trade by the quantitative index of exports.

In recent years, the terms of trade for developed countries have been improving, while for PCs and countries with economies in transition, they have continued to worsen. This situation is associated with an increase in demand and, accordingly, prices for high-tech products from highly developed countries. The need for it is growing due to the desire of lagging behind countries to join the process of catching up development.

Now there is an increase in demand in the world commodity markets due to the growth of the industry of China, India and the newly industrialized countries of Asia. For Russia, such a conjuncture gives a chance to quickly increase export earnings and increase GDP.

A country integrating into the world market can increase its income with the help of structural strategies in the form of:

Increasing the potential of export industries;
reduce dependence on imports.

Export-expanding economic growth multiplies the country's income. But the saturation of the world market with export goods will lead to a drop in its selling prices, which will worsen the terms of trade for the country.

Countries suffering from the dominance of imports seek to stimulate import substitution. This could lead to a drop in demand and prices for imports, which would improve the terms of foreign trade.

When developing foreign trade policy directions, Russia should not forget about the benefits of import substitution processes.

Trade fair - a short-term event held periodically in the same place, in which a large number of enterprises, using samples, represent the objective scale of goods / services of one or several industries, so that the business visitor gets a clear idea of ​​​​their entrepreneurial opportunities, while the exhibitor, with the help of exhibited goods, seeks to spread information about his company and its products and conclude direct trade deals.

Trade and industrial exhibition - a short-term event, periodically held in the same place, in which a significant number of enterprises, using samples, give a representative picture of the offer of goods / services of one or several industries and seeks to inform end users about their company and its products with the final the purpose of promoting sales.

According to the nature of exhibitors, all exhibitions and fairs are divided into:

Universal;
specialized.

Goals of participation of the company in the work of fairs and exhibitions

First of all, it is necessary to clearly define the goals that the company sets for itself by participating in the exhibition.

Typically, these goals include:

Demonstration of products, presentation of new goods (services);
brand promotion, improvement of the company's image;
study of sales markets, formation of a dealer network;
company advertising;
direct sales of products;
study of products and strategies of competitors.

For example, well-known computer companies (IBM, DELL, Hewlett Packard), or electronic equipment manufacturers (SONY, PANASONIC, PHILIPS, BOSCH, SIEMENS, etc.), will participate in all thematic exhibitions: both general and highly specialized, in order to "show themselves", "look" at competitors, maintain the image and brand, make it clear that they stand firmly on their feet, control the market.

Protectionism in foreign trade

In order to maintain domestic production, all states participating in international trade use import controls in its various forms. In general, such measures are called protectionism in the framework of international trade. This phenomenon takes the form of obstacles of the widest range invented by the governments of countries, aimed at adjusting the commodity and financial flows involved in international trade. Among the various instruments for protecting the domestic market, economic and political spheres, quotas, tariffs, and subsidies should be noted. All of them were used to stimulate the export of domestic goods and protect the country's sectors of the economy from import competition. Protectionism in international trade, namely its extreme measure is a complete ban on the import of certain categories of goods, which is observed in Russia today.

Protectionism is the patronage in the sphere of the economy on the part of the country's leadership in relation to the participants of the domestic market, the protection of this market from foreign products and, on the contrary, the promotion of competitive export goods to foreign markets within the framework of international trade.

The policy of protectionism sees as a task the protection of the national economy from the competition of foreign producers, the stimulation of its development, which is achieved through non-tariff and tariff regulation of international trade.

The urgency of the task of developing an adequate economic policy of protectionism in Russia is increasing due to the intensification of globalization processes in international trade. It becomes especially important to stimulate the growth of the competitiveness of domestic products both locally and globally. Due to the more active implementation of protectionism in Russia in the relevant areas, it is possible to facilitate, accelerate and increase the effectiveness of the adaptation of Russian producers to the new post-crisis realities of the world economy and international trade.

Throughout the history of Russia, the preferences of statesmen in the field of economic policy have changed from a preference for protectionism in the Russian economy to free trade and vice versa, although they have never taken extreme forms. Note that a completely open economy, characterized by the free movement of all factors of production across state borders in international trade, has never been observed even abroad. The international circulation of productive resources is invariably regulated to one degree or another by the governments of countries. In an open economy, however, the economic interests of the state itself are taken into account.

A lot has been said and written on the topic of comparing the concepts of protectionism and the free market in international trade, both by politicians and economists. The first is good because it contributes to the development of the national industry, the latter - information transparency and the possibility of a direct comparison of global and domestic costs. Preference was given to free trade and liberalization in the 1950s and 1960s, but since the early 1970s, protectionism in international trade has increased, and the number of non-tariff and tariff barriers between countries has increased.

Among the main goals of the policy of protectionism in Russia and the world are:

Protection on a permanent basis of strategic sectors, such as agriculture, problems in which can lead to critical vulnerability of the state in case of war;
Temporary support for young industries formed in the domestic market, from the moment of their development to the level of competitiveness in the world market;
A response to protectionist activity on the part of trading partners.

The diversity of protectionism in international trade in terms of its narrow tasks allows us to distinguish a number of forms of this activity:

Selective protectionism - protection from a specific product or protection from a specific state;
Sectoral protectionism - protection of a certain industry (primarily agriculture within the framework of agrarian protectionism);
Collective protectionism - mutual protection of several countries united in an alliance;
Hidden protectionism - protection using non-customs methods, including methods of domestic economic policy.

Non-tariff regulation of foreign trade

Customs tariffs remain the most important instrument of foreign trade policy, but their role has been gradually weakening over the past decades. In the post-war period, during the entry of multilateral negotiations within the framework of the GATT, a significant reduction in tariff barriers was achieved. However, the degree of influence of the state on international trade over the years has actually even increased, which is associated with a significant expansion of the forms and measures of non-tariff trade restrictions. It is estimated that at present there are at least 50 of them. Non-tariff trade regulation measures are especially actively used by industrialized countries. By the beginning of the XXI century. on average, 14% of goods imported by the EU, the US and Japan were subject to major non-tariff restrictions: import quotas, voluntary export restrictions and anti-dumping measures. Being less open than customs duties, non-tariff barriers provide more room for arbitrary action by governments and create significant uncertainty in international trade. In this regard, the World Trade Organization is faced with the task of gradually lifting quantitative restrictions, i.e. carry out the so-called tariffing (replacement of quantitative restrictions with tariffs that provide an equivalent level of protection).

Non-tariff measures used in foreign trade policy are diverse, and their role, as customs tariffs decrease, does not decrease, but increases.

The most common are those aimed at directly restricting imports:

Quoting;
licensing;
voluntary export restrictions;
technical limitations;
anti-dumping legislation.

Of particular importance are quotas and licensing of imports and exports.

QUOTATION

This is limiting the size of imports using the so-called global, individual, seasonal and other types of percentage restrictions.

The global quota, which accounts for two-thirds of all cases, sets a limit on the volume of imports in value or physical terms for a certain period. The total amount allowed by the quota of imports by country is not broken down.

An individual quota provides for the size of imports in relation to specific countries or a specific product (its manufacturer). As a criterion, when distributing an individual quota, the counter obligations of states to import goods of a given country are taken into account. Such obligations are secured by trade agreements and take on the character of a bilateral quota on a contractual basis.

Seasonal quotas set limits on the size of agricultural imports for certain times of the year. Import restrictions without taking into account the time period represent non-specified quotas.

Quotas are introduced to balance foreign trade and balance of payments, regulate supply and demand in the domestic market, fulfill international obligations and reach a mutually beneficial agreement in intergovernmental negotiations.

LICENSING

This non-tariff measure in international trade is very diverse. Licensing is a restriction in the form of obtaining the right or permission (license) from authorized state bodies to import a certain volume of goods. The license may establish the procedure for the import or export of goods.

Licensing is interpreted in international practice as a temporary measure, which is carried out on the basis of strict control of certain commodity flows. It is practiced in cases of temporary restriction of unwanted import volumes. In modern foreign practice, general and individual licenses are mainly used.

A general license is a permanent permission for a company to import certain goods from the countries listed in it without limiting the volume and cost. Sometimes the license specifies goods prohibited for import. General licenses with product lists are regularly published in official publications.

An individual license is issued as a one-time permit for one trading operation with a specific type of product (sometimes two or three types, but of the same product group). It also indicates information about its recipient, quantity, cost and country of origin of the goods. It is registered, cannot be transferred to another importer and has a limited validity period (usually up to one year).

An integral element of licensing is quota, i.e. the establishment by the state of centralized control over the call and import by limiting the range of goods within the established quantitative or cost quotas for a fixed period of time. At present, GATT/WTO provisions permit the imposition of quantitative restrictions on imports in the event of a sharp imbalance in the trade balance.

A special form of quantitative restriction of imports has become widespread - voluntary export restrictions, when not the importing country sets a quota, but the exporting countries themselves undertake obligations to restrict exports to this country. Dozens of such agreements have already been signed, restricting the export of cars, steel, televisions, textiles, etc., mainly from Japan and the newly industrialized countries to the US and EU countries. Of course, in reality, such export restrictions are not voluntary, but forced: they are introduced either as a result of political pressure from the importing country, or under the influence of the threat to apply more stringent protectionist measures (for example, to initiate an anti-dumping investigation).

In principle, voluntary quantitative restrictions represent the same quota, but introduced not by the importing country, but by the exporting country. However, the consequences of such a measure to restrict foreign trade for the economy of the importing country are even more negative than when using a tariff or an import quota. An example is the voluntary restriction of Russian exports of crude uranium and steel to the United States.

Among the measures of non-tariff restrictions in foreign practice are special requirements for imported goods, established to ensure safety and security. natural environment, whose role has increased significantly today. They involve compliance with customs formalities - technical standards and norms, requirements for packaging and labeling of goods, standards for sanitary and veterinary control. By themselves, these formalities are necessary and neutral, but they can be formulated in such a way that they either become a barrier to certain goods or serve the purpose of discriminating against certain countries.

One part of technical barriers is a ban or restriction on the import of goods and materials that pollute the environment (chemical products, pesticides, coal and oil with a high sulfur content). The other part includes the expansion of protectionist measures in relation to industrial equipment, vehicles and other types of products, the operation of which leads to air and air pollution. Finally, the latter is related to the quality of goods, and these technical barriers protect the interests of consumers, protecting them from damage caused by a defect in the goods and from possible harm during use, which applies primarily to the import of household electrical appliances, medical preparations and devices, food products. , children's goods. Many countries have passed laws imposing severe sanctions on suppliers of imported goods, who are required to inform the buyer in instructions, on labels or on the label of all possible risks associated with the consumption of goods.

To protect national producers, the state, along with restricting imports, takes measures aimed at encouraging exports. One of the forms of stimulation of domestic export industries is export subsidies, i.e. financial benefits provided by the state to exporters to expand the export of goods abroad. Thanks to such subsidies, exporters are able to sell goods on the foreign market at a lower price than on the domestic one. Export subsidies can be direct (payment of subsidies to the manufacturer when it enters the foreign market) and indirect (through preferential taxation, loans, insurance, etc.).

Even the most developed countries overwhelmingly practice very strict agrarian protectionism; It is indicative that in prosperous Western European countries the level of customs taxation of imported agricultural goods is now higher than in Russia. Already at the stage of creation and in the first years of the GATT - an organization designed, as you know, to ensure the liberalization of world trade - these countries agreed that their agricultural sector remained largely outside its competence. In all other serious situations, when national interests and/or national laws came into conflict with international trade norms, these states, as a rule, found opportunities for a compromise solution. As a result, a considerable number of goods and industries were removed from the framework of "free" (all with the same reservations) international trade. Many of them received state support in the form of trade restrictions or subsidies, but only for a relatively short period of time, which is necessary for domestic firms to restructure and adapt to the requirements of the world market, and then again entered into open competition - this is the so-called educational protectionism. Others are still under state protection.

The most protected industry is agriculture. In addition to generous subsidies for production, including in countries with very favorable climatic conditions for the development of this sector of the economy, imports are limited on a fairly large scale and exports of agricultural goods are subsidized.

The measures of the "green box" to support the national agricultural producer under the provisions of the WTO include the creation of state food stocks; direct payments to producers not related to the production of agricultural products; insurance; compensation for losses from natural disasters; protection program payments environment; payments under regional assistance programs for agricultural producers, etc.

The “yellow box” measures include targeted support for agricultural producers, payments based on the area of ​​agricultural land; subsidies for means of production; soft loans.

Blue box measures include measures that encourage the reduction of agricultural production (for example, in the EU countries).

For more than three decades, the textile and clothing industries have been under the tutelage of the state. On the basis of agreements on voluntary quotas by exporters of their supplies, the United States restricted the import of products from these industries from 28 countries, the EU - from 19, Canada - from 22, Norway - from 16, Finland - from 7 and Austria - from 6 countries. Later, Russia suffered from these restrictions imposed by the EU, despite the rather modest size of its supplies of the relevant products.

At various times, Western countries imposed restrictions on the import of cars, stainless steel, machine tools, aircraft, consumer electronics, chemical goods, shoes, leather products.

Countervailing duties as a measure of non-tariff regulation are applied to those imported goods, the production and export of which are subsidized by the exporting state, since this type of duty neutralizes export subsidies. Non-tariff regulation measures also include monetary and financial restrictions related to foreign exchange control and balance of payments regulation. Additional (in addition to duties) taxes on imports and import deposits also contribute to the restriction. Import deposits are a form of collateral that an importer must deposit with their bank before purchasing a foreign product in the amount of a fraction of its value.

DUMPING

A common form of competition in the world market is dumping, when an exporter sells his goods on a foreign market at a price below normal. Usually we are talking about selling at a price lower than the price of a similar product in the domestic market of the exporting country. Dumping may be, firstly, a consequence of the state foreign trade policy, when the exporter receives a subsidy. Secondly, dumping can result from a typically monopolistic practice of price discrimination, when an exporting firm that occupies a monopoly position in the domestic market, with inelastic demand, maximizes its income by raising prices, while in a competitive foreign market with sufficiently elastic demand, it achieves the same result by lowering the price and increasing the volume of sales. This kind of price discrimination is possible if the market is segmented, i.e. it is difficult to equalize the prices of the domestic and foreign markets by reselling the goods due to high transport costs or state-imposed trade restrictions.

Anti-dumping measures are reduced to the collection of compensation from the exporter for damage to the national industry and the manufacturer, usually in favor of the latter, often in the form of an additional duty. To ascertain dumping, two main criteria are used: price, or cost, and economic damage.

The anti-dumping duty rate is set on a case-by-case basis. Such a duty is not assigned automatically: it is levied only after an investigation to confirm the fact of dumping and, importantly, to identify economic damage to the entrepreneur of the importing country.

Temporary anti-dumping duties are a kind of warning about the possibility of taking more severe measures against the exporter. Permanent ones look like the most serious measure, the application of which leads to significant losses for the exporter, and possibly even to his complete withdrawal from the market.

Along with the listed anti-dumping measures, one is also used when the exporter assumes the obligation to comply with the minimum price level (“normal value”) or to limit the quantity of goods supplied.

However, the problem of anti-dumping measures in world practice continues to be quite complicated, and the methods of struggle remain insufficiently effective. Thus, among the dozens of anti-dumping and countervailing lawsuits filed annually with the US Department of Commerce and the International Trade Commission, there are cases of inconsistent sentences, rules that are easy to circumvent, and inaction of the authorities in implementing decisions. This leads to undesirable economic consequences. For example, Mexico, which has not created its own television technology, long time supplied 70% of imported TVs to the American market at reduced prices only because it bypassed customs duties on color picture tubes introduced by the United States to combat the dumping of goods from Japan, Korea, Singapore and Canada.

Claims on the part of Western states against the perpetrators of dumping pose a great threat, primarily through the introduction of quantitative restrictions on such exporters.

Economic sanctions are an extreme form of state restriction of foreign trade. These include a trade embargo - the imposition by the state of a ban on the import into or export from a country of goods, and, as a rule, for political reasons. But economic sanctions against a country can also be of a collective nature, for example, when they are imposed by a UN decision.

International foreign trade

International (foreign) trade - trade in goods and services between countries.

International (foreign) trade is necessary for most countries both in economic and social relations. It is vital to solving the fundamental questions of any economy: What to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce? Foreign trade contributes to a more efficient use of both domestic resources and resources belonging to other countries in order to better meet the unlimited needs of the population at home and abroad. Moreover, changes in net exports (the difference between exports and imports) can have a significant impact on domestic production and income levels.

Foreign and domestic trade differ from each other in that:

A) resources at the international level are less mobile than within the country;
b) in domestic trade, each country uses its own currency, and in foreign trade - the world one;
c) foreign trade is more subject to political control.

What is the basis of trade between countries? Answer: an international division of labor by which countries can develop specialization, increase the productivity of their resources, and thus increase their total output. Sovereign states, as well as individuals and regions of a country, can benefit by specializing in the products they can produce with the greatest relative efficiency and then exchanging them for goods they cannot produce themselves efficiently.

In response to the question "Why do countries trade?" there are three circumstances:

1. Economic resources - natural, human, investment goods are distributed among the countries of the world extremely unevenly; countries differ significantly in their endowment with economic resources.
2. Efficient production various goods, taking into account the use of advanced technologies or combinations of resources.
3. Maximum satisfaction of the boundless needs of all living on Earth.

The nature and interaction of these three circumstances can be illustrated. Japan, for example, has a large and well-educated workforce; skilled labor is cheap because it is plentiful. In this regard, Japan is able to efficiently produce (at low cost) a variety of goods, the manufacture of which requires a large amount of skilled labor. Cameras, radios and video recorders are just a few examples of these labour-intensive items. On the contrary, Australia has vast land areas, but insufficient human resources and capital, and therefore can produce cheaply such "land-intensive" goods as wheat, wool, meat. Brazil has fertile soils, a tropical climate, a large amount of rainfall, an abundance of unskilled labor, that is, everything necessary for the production of cheap coffee.

The industrialized countries are in a better strategic position to produce a variety of capital-intensive goods such as automobiles, agricultural equipment, machinery and chemicals. The economic efficiency with which countries are able to produce different goods can and does change over time. For example, Russia, which exported mainly agricultural goods and raw materials half a century ago, now exports manufactured goods. Shifts in the distribution of resources and technology can lead to shifts in the relative efficiency of producing goods in different countries. For example, the new technologies that promoted the production of synthetic fibers and artificial rubber have radically changed the resource mix needed to manufacture these commodities and thus changed the relative efficiency of their production. In other words, as national economies evolve, the quantity and quality of the labor force, the volume and composition of capital may change.

Mutually beneficial specialization and trade between any two countries is possible as long as the internal cost ratios for any two products differ. By specializing in a particular industry, in accordance with comparative advantages, countries can receive large real incomes with fixed amounts of resources. The terms of trade determine how this increase in world production will be divided among the trading countries. Rising costs put limits on the benefits of specialization and trade.

Trade barriers take the form of protective duties. Analysis of supply and demand reveals that protective duties lead to higher prices and reduce the volume of goods to which these duties apply. Foreign exporters are losing out on reduced sales of their goods. Domestic producers, however, are benefiting from higher prices and increased sales. Tariffs thus lead to a less efficient allocation of domestic and global resources.

In certain cases, references to the underdevelopment of the national industry and the need for self-sufficiency in defense industries are the strongest arguments in favor of protective measures. Protectionists tend to emphasize the immediate effects of trade barriers and ignore the long-term effects. Critics of protectionism argue that free trade stimulates economic growth, and protectionism does not contribute to this process.

In recent years, there has been a resurgence of protectionism in some countries, especially those in transition.

Economic integration is an important means of trade liberalization. The most striking example is the European Community, formed from three communities: the European Economic Community of the EEC, or " Common Market”, the European Atomic Energy Community Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community ECSC, which abolish internal trade barriers, apply a common system of duties to developing countries and provide for the freedom of movement of labor and capital.

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was created:

A) in order to stimulate the application of a non-discriminatory regime for all trading countries;
b) to reduce the level of fees;
c) to eliminate import quotas.

Economics of foreign trade

Foreign trade is the interaction of a country with foreign countries regarding the movement of goods and services across national borders.

Foreign trade allows the state:

A) receive additional income from the sale of national goods and services abroad;
b) saturate the domestic market;
c) overcome the limited national resources;
d) increase labor productivity by specializing in world trade in the supply of certain products to the world market.

Foreign trade is characterized by the concepts of export and import: the first involves the export of goods and services abroad and the receipt of foreign currency in return, and the second - their import from abroad with the appropriate payment. Export, like investment, increases the aggregate demand in the country and drives the foreign trade multiplier, creating primary, secondary, tertiary, etc. employment. An increase in imports limits this effect due to the outflow of financial resources abroad.

Foreign trade is organized on the principles developed and enshrined in the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). It has been replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which considers foreign trade more broadly to include the exchange commodity services and sale and purchase of intellectual property.

The theory of comparative advantage. Export in foreign trade, according to A. Smith, becomes profitable if the costs of producing goods within the country are much lower than those of other states. In this case, goods produced by the national economy have absolute advantages over foreign competitors and can be easily sold abroad. On the other hand, no state can have an absolute advantage in all manufactured goods, therefore, it is necessary to import those that are more expensive domestically and cheaper abroad. Then at the same time there is a direct benefit from both exports and imports.

Based on the absolute advantages of A. Smith, D. Ricardo formulated the theory of comparative costs (advantages), according to which, when determining the profitability of foreign trade, one should compare not the absolute, but the relative effect, and not the costs themselves, but their ratios. At the same time, it should be taken into account that, by producing certain goods in conditions of limited resources, the country loses the opportunity to produce others that are no less necessary for it, therefore, in accordance with the theory of comparative advantages of Ricardo, a situation is quite possible in which it is profitable for the country to import goods, even in the case if their domestic production is cheaper. In this case Smith's theory of absolute costs becomes a special case of the theory of comparative costs.

The theory of comparative costs of Ricardo in modern conditions is supplemented by the theory of Heckscher - Ohlin, named after two Swedish economists, who proved that countries tend to export not only goods that have absolute and relative advantages, but also goods, the production of which intensively uses relatively excess production factors, and they import goods for the production of which there is a shortage of factors in the country. Unlike A. Smith and D. Ricardo, their modern followers believe that both sides benefit from foreign trade - both this country and the rest of the world.

Forms of foreign trade

1. Trading in finished products does not exclude the execution additional work increasing the competitiveness of the product.

These types are:

Pre-sale service - (does not change the technical characteristics of the product) depreservation of the product after transportation, giving it a marketable appearance and bringing the product to a state when it is finally ready for use or use.
- Pre-sales refinement - to meet the individual needs of consumers.
- Maintenance.

2. Trade in disassembled products. It is used to increase its competitiveness in foreign markets and to obtain suppliers additional rights compared to sales of finished products. Machines, equipment, building structures, etc. are most often exported disassembled. Developing countries use this form to protect national sectors of the economy from the competition of foreign suppliers, they impose bans, quotas, increased customs duties on the import of finished products, and on the import of products in disassembled form establishes reduced customs duties.

Additional requirements for disassembled products:

Products should be divided into such components and parts, the assembly of which will correspond to the skill level that the workers of the country have and can ensure the high quality of the assembled products;
- the accuracy of manufacturing individual units should completely exclude fitting during assembly;
- division into nodes should take into account savings in transportation costs;
- timely delivery of parts should ensure the rhythm of assembly production;
- warehouses of stocks of units and parts abroad should be optimal.

3. Rental of machinery and equipment has been widely used in the USA since the 1950s and there are 3 types:

Leasing - long-term lease (from 6 months to several years) of machinery, equipment, vehicles, industrial facilities, providing for the possibility of their subsequent redemption by the tenant;
- hiring - a form of leasing, medium-term rental of machinery and equipment without transferring ownership of the leased property to the tenant;
- renting - short-term lease of machinery and equipment without the right of their subsequent redemption by the tenant, differs from leasing in a higher level of rent.

4. Counter trade - foreign trade operations, in which agreements or contracts fix the commodity obligations of exporters and importers to make a full or partially balanced exchange of goods. This is a way to save foreign exchange funds and a way to enter domestic markets with products that are difficult to export by conventional methods.

Barter is a non-currency but valued exchange of goods. Valuation goods in barter transactions are divided to ensure the equivalence of exchange. The use of world prices can serve as a guarantee of equivalence;
- counter purchases - purchases made by exporters in partial payment for the goods sold. They are carried out on account of the obligations assumed by exporters in contracts for the sale of basic goods. In most cases, exporters are forced to assume reciprocal purchase obligations under pressure from importers;
- buyback of obsolete products. Widely used in the field of industrial equipment: metalworking equipment, purchase of passenger airliners, marine vessels. When a customer buys a new car, the price of the old one (trade in) is deducted from its value. The company has developed special markdown tables depending on the year of manufacture, mileage and technical condition;
- operations with tolling raw materials - under this contract, one of the parties undertakes to export raw materials and import processed products or finished products. The other party undertakes to process the raw materials at its own expense. Payment for the services of processing firms is carried out by deliveries of an additional amount of customer-supplied raw materials;
- compensatory transactions - obligations of foreign partners to buy products to repay financial or commodity loans.

5. Trade in cooperative products.

Production cooperation - when components and parts of cooperating products are manufactured not for the market as a whole, but according to the instructions and those. the requirements of specific customers of foreign trade contracts, which formalize the supply of such products, are of a contractual nature. Contracts may provide for the joint development of the design of machines, the production and supply of cooperative parts for those. customer documentation. Suppliers can manufacture cooperative products both from their own materials and from materials and semi-finished products of customers;
- marketing cooperation - cooperation between economically independent producers who invest in joint activities to sell their products, conduct joint advertising campaigns, prepare common technical and economic proposals, use each other's sales networks and create joint sales enterprises;
- production and marketing cooperation - when companies producing various types of products not only complement each other in the market, but also organize the sale of products, which is the result of production cooperation (machine tool building, aircraft building, automotive industry).

6. Trade within the framework of a consortium (temporary union of economically separate entities). Created to improve the technical and commercial competitiveness of the products of companies involved in the competition for large orders.

Goals of consortiums:

1. Increasing competitiveness by sharing the best design and technical solutions of partners;
2. Increasing technical and commercial competition through separate manufacturing of products between partners, taking into account their experience, technical equipment, etc.;
3. Increasing commercial competition by mobilizing partners for their credit opportunities.

The initiator is often an engineering firm. Members of the consortium are economically isolated. They are jointly and severally liable.

At the heart of the transaction is the purchase and sale of goods in a tangible form: the seller undertakes to transfer the goods to the ownership of the buyer within the stipulated time and under certain conditions, and the buyer undertakes to accept the goods and pay an agreed amount of money for it.

Methods are depending on the distribution channel and the nature of the relationship between the parties:

Direct (there are no intermediaries between the seller and the buyer);
- indirect (through intermediaries).

direct method. This method is appropriate for firms that have been on the market for a long time and have a fairly large sales volume.

Advantages of the direct method:

1) financial benefit, which consists in reducing costs by the amount of the commission fee to the intermediary (increased profitability);
2) reduced risks and dependence on additional trading participants (it is easier to control the implementation process);
3) the possibility of obtaining information about the sale of goods (direct contact).

indirect method. Indirect: producer---intermediary---consumer. This method allows you to force competitors out of the market who work with the same intermediaries for more favorable conditions.

Appropriate:

For a narrowly segmented market and individual non-permanent customers;
- when entering new markets (when the company does not have its own distribution channel and when there is strong competition in the market).

Intermediary operations are carried out on the basis of agency agreements, agency agreements, commissions, consignments, simple intermediary agreements and distribution agreements.

An intermediary agreement is an agreement between the intermediary and the principal. The principal can be sellers, buyers, suppliers, customers, lessors.

Under the contract of commission, the attorney undertakes to perform certain actions on foreign trade, purchase and sale on his own behalf and at the expense of the principal. Remuneration - a percentage of the value of the goods sold. Intermediary operations: in sales (agents, distributors, consignees) and in negotiations (simple intermediary, attorney, commission agent).

Commission form - when foreign economic organizations carry out commission orders of various legal entities for the purchase of imported goods abroad and for the supply of export goods abroad. They study the market, conduct advertising, build a sales network and a maintenance network. They conclude transactions on their own behalf, but at the expense of the seller or buyer.

Importance of foreign trade

International trade is an important means of developing the national economy, since it increases labor productivity and increases the total volume of production. States that export their goods to other countries receive significant economic benefits through the development of specialized industries that have a relatively higher efficiency compared to countries that produce similar products.

The principle of comparative advantage states that total output will be greatest if each good is produced at a lower total cost of production compared to the country where the good is imported. And what is natural, since it is more profitable to buy goods from another country than to organize your own production, which will require large expenditures for a similar product.

Through international trade, the world economy can achieve a more efficient allocation of resources and a higher level of material well-being people. Each country must produce those commodities whose production costs are relatively lower than those in other countries, and exchange the commodities in which it specializes for products whose production costs are lower in the country than in the whole country. If every country does this, the world can take full advantage of geographic and human specialization.

In addition to the indicated benefits from international trade, one should also point out the side benefits that the country receives from the international division of labor. Free international trade stimulates competition and limits the dominance of monopolies. Increasing competition from foreign firms is forcing local firms to switch to production technologies that provide the lowest costs for the creation of relevant goods. Of course, the transition to new technologies involves the use of the latest achievements in the field of science and technology, which generally contributes to improving the quality of products, increasing labor productivity, and the economic development of the country as a whole. Free international exchange of goods provides consumers with the opportunity to choose or a wider range of goods, replenish store shelves with a wide variety of goods produced in various countries of the globe.

Thus, it can be stated that international trade is vital for all countries without exception, including the most developed ones.

For example, even for a country like the United States, international trade is vital for the following reasons:

1. The absolute volume of US foreign trade exceeds the exports and imports of any other country.
2. For some types of goods and materials that the United States cannot or does not profitably produce domestically, they depend on international trade.
3. Changes in the volume of exports and imports can have a significant impact on the level of domestic production and income.

The volume of net exports is an important economic indicator of the effectiveness of countries' foreign economic activity. The value of net exports is the difference between the value of a country's exports and its imports. This value has a multifaceted effect on the level of national income, thus, as the effect of fluctuations various kinds domestic spending. Even small changes in the volume of imports and exports can cause major shifts in income levels, employment, and domestic prices.

International and domestic trade have their specific differences. These differences lie in the fact that economic resources are distributed unevenly between countries, each country uses its national currency in its foreign economic activity. International trade is most subject to political control by various branches of the country's government.

Restriction of foreign trade

Non-tariff methods of regulation of foreign trade (Non-tariff trade regulation) means the use of various instruments of foreign trade regulation, other than customs duties. These include: quotas, licensing, voluntary restrictions on exports, export subsidies, administrative and technical barriers, etc.

Quoting foreign trade deliveries means limiting export and/or import deliveries by the quantity of goods (quantitative quotas) or their total value (value quotas) for a specified period of time.

Quotas are allocated:

The general quota (global quota) is determined for state needs;
- Natural quota - associated with limited bandwidth oil pipelines, terminals in ports, etc.;
- Exclusive quota (exclusive quota) - is introduced in special cases related to ensuring the national security of the state, protecting the domestic market, fulfilling international obligations.
- A tariff quota (tariff quota) is a permission to import a certain amount of goods into the country duty-free or at reduced rates; goods imported in excess of this limit are subject to customs duties at the normal rates.
- Export quota (export quota) limits the amount of products allowed for export.
- Import quota limits the amount of products allowed to be imported.
- Licensing is a restriction in the form of obtaining the right or permission (license) from authorized state bodies to perform specific export and / or import operations. The license itself may establish the procedure for the import or export of goods. The license may also contain permission to import (export) a certain volume of goods - in this case, licensing is closely related to quotas. Licensing may be integral part quotas or be an independent instrument of state regulation.

A quota imposed by the exporting country and not by the importing country is called a voluntary export restraint. It may be imposed by, for example, persuasion or the threat of sanctions; this form of settlement only outwardly appears to be voluntary.

An export subsidy refers to the provision by the government or government agency countries of financial assistance to enterprises and sectors of the economy on its territory to support domestic exporters and indirectly discriminate against foreign importers.

An extreme form of state restriction of foreign trade are economic sanctions, such as a trade embargo (trade embargo) - a state prohibition of import into or export from any country of goods.

A common form of administrative measures to control foreign trade are declarations, visas, permits. Technical barriers include requirements to comply with national standards, obtain quality certificates for imported products, specific packaging and labeling of goods, compliance with certain sanitary and hygienic standards, etc.

Foreign trade in services

In today's world, the service sector is becoming increasingly important. The area of ​​foreign trade is no exception. Thus, the special role of foreign trade is emphasized in the preamble to the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), concluded within the framework of the World Trade Organization in Marrakesh. It states that GATS members recognize the growing importance of trade in services for the growth and development of the world economy.

The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is a multilateral agreement that is the main legal regulation trade in services within the World Trade Organization. The characteristics of this agreement are Special offers to it, which are designed to concretize and supplement certain provisions of the GATS. The GATS contains general norms and obligations binding on all participating countries for certain sectors and types of services, which are recorded in separate lists.

The structure of the GATS includes 6 parts and applications:

Scope and definitions,
- general obligations and rules,
- specific obligations,
- gradual liberalization,
- institutional provisions,
- final provisions,
- applications.

In GATS, trade in services is understood as the supply of services:

- a service provider of one WTO member through commercial presence in the territory of any other WTO member;
- a service provider of one member of the WTO through the presence individuals a WTO member on the territory of any other WTO member;
- from the territory of one WTO member to the territory of any other WTO member;
- on the territory of one WTO member to a consumer of services of any other WTO member;
- a service provider of one WTO member through commercial presence in the territory of any other WTO member.

In Art. 2 of Federal Law No. 164-FZ “On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities” establishes the definition of the concept of “foreign trade in services”, which is the provision of services (performance of work), including the production, distribution, marketing, delivery of services (works) and in the ways specified in federal law No. 164-FZ "On the basics of state regulation of foreign trade activities."

Within the framework of this definition, two concepts were used - work and service, which are actually recognized as identical within the framework of the above definition.

Foreign trade in services can be carried out in various ways. Their list is contained in the commented article: from the territory of the Russian Federation to the territory of a foreign state.

In accordance with Art. 69 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the territory of the Russian Federation includes the territories of its constituent entities, internal waters and the territorial sea, and the airspace above them.

The length of the territory of Russia from north to south exceeds 4,000 km, from west to east - approaches 10,000 km. The total length of Russia's borders is 60,933 km (of which 38,808 km are maritime borders); Russia's borders in the north and east are maritime, in the south and west they are mostly land. Borders with: Kazakhstan (6846 km), China (3645 km), Mongolia (3485 km), Ukraine (1576 km), Finland (1340 km), Belarus (959 km), Georgia (723 km), Estonia (294 km) , Azerbaijan (284 km), Lithuania (280.5 km), Poland (232 km), Latvia (217 km), Norway (196 km), North Korea (19 km).

The territory of a foreign state is a certain territory to which the sovereignty of a particular state extends:

From the territory of a foreign state to the territory of the Russian Federation;
- on the territory of the Russian Federation to a foreign customer of services.

Foreign customer of services - a foreign person who ordered services (works) or uses them on the territory of a foreign state to a Russian customer of services.

Russian customer of services - a Russian person who ordered services (works) or uses them.

By a Russian service provider that does not have a commercial presence in the territory of a foreign state, through the presence of him or persons authorized to act on his behalf in the territory of a foreign state.

Russian service provider - a Russian person providing services (performing work). Commercial presence - any form of organization of entrepreneurial and other economic activities of a foreign entity on the territory of the Russian Federation or a Russian entity on the territory of a foreign state permitted by the legislation of the Russian Federation or the legislation of a foreign state for the purpose of providing services, including by creating a legal entity, branch or representative office of a legal entity or participation in the authorized (share) capital of a legal entity. A Russian legal entity through which a commercial presence is carried out is considered as a foreign service provider if the foreign entity (foreign entities), by virtue of its predominant participation in the authorized (reserve) capital of the Russian legal entity, or in accordance with an agreement concluded between them, or otherwise has the ability to determine the decisions made by the Russian legal entity.

In international practice, the classification of services created for the purposes of the GATS and prepared by the GATT Secretariat on the basis of the Unified Product Classifier developed by the UN is widely used. This classification includes 12 groups of services, and the total number of types is more than 160.

The following main types of services are distinguished:

Business Services;
- communication services;
- construction and engineering services;
- distribution services;
- general educational services;
- environmental protection services;
- Financial services, including insurance;
- health and social services;
- tourism and travel;
- services in the field of leisure, culture and sports;
- transport services;
- other services.

Federal Law No. 164-FZ “On the Fundamentals of State Regulation of Foreign Trade Activities” does not provide a classification of types of services. Therefore, within the framework of this article, when identifying the types of services, statistical reports of the Bank of Russia on foreign trade in services were used.

Thus, services such as:

transport services,
- travel,
- communication services,
- construction services,
- insurance services,
- Financial services,
- computer and information services,
- royalties and license fees,
- other business services,
- services in the field of culture and recreation,
- public services.

When preparing statistical reports, an extended classification of services is used according to the methodology of the balance of payments. Foreign trade in services may be restricted by imposing prohibitions and restrictions affecting all or certain sectors of services in relation to the methods of rendering services on the basis of federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation. However, such restrictions may be introduced only if otherwise provided by international treaties of the Russian Federation.

Traditionally, the most developed form of international economic relations is trade, which accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international transactions.

international trade – it is a system of international commodity-money relations developing under the influence of the internationalization of economic life and the intensification of the international division of labor under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution. International trade consists of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

External trade - This trade of one country with other countries, consisting of import (import) and export (export) of goods and services.

In volume import includes: goods produced abroad and brought into the country for sale or use within the country, or for export to third countries; Re-importation from abroad of unprocessed domestic goods is called re-import.

Subject export are: goods produced in the country;

goods imported into the country and processed in it;

Previously imported goods that have not undergone any processing, the so-called re-export.

The state and dynamics of the country's foreign trade is characterized by a number of indicators, the main of which are:

· value and physical volume of foreign trade;

· Commodity and geographic structure of foreign trade;

· the level of specialization and industrialization of exports;

· export and import quota;

the trade balance.

The value of exports and imports of goods, as well as the trade balance of the Russian Federation on a FOB (free on board) basis, has shown a positive trend in recent years (Fig. 6.1). The exception is 2009, which was caused primarily by the global economic crisis. According to 2010 data, Russia ranks 13th in the world in terms of exports of goods, 19th in terms of imports, and 4th in terms of trade surplus, behind China, Japan and Germany. Most of the developed economies of the world (USA, Great Britain, Germany, etc.) have a passive trade balance (Table 6.1).

According to the commodity structure of exports and imports, one can judge the levels of specialization and industrialization of the country's economy. For example, the dynamics of Russia's export structure for the period from 2006 to 2010 illustrates a slight increase in the share of chemical industry products, as well as machinery and equipment, which is a positive trend. At the same time, an increase in the share of mineral products,

including fuel and energy products, by 2.5%, indicates the preservation of the raw material orientation of exports and the Russian economy (see Table 6.1).

Rice. 6.1. Volumes of exports, imports and trade balance of Russia, mln USD

The totality of measures of direct impact on the part of the state on the volume of exported and imported goods and services is called foreign trade policy . In world practice, there are two fundamentally different types of foreign trade policy:

1) free trading , representing theory and practice of free trade;

2) protectionism – theory and practice of restrictive regulation of foreign trade.

Table 6.1 Commodity structure of Russian exports, in % of the total

Export item
Foodstuffs and agricultural raw materials, except textiles
mineral products
Products of the chemical industry
Leather raw materials, furs and products from them
Wood, pulp and paper products
Textile, textile products, footwear
Precious stones and precious metals
Metals and products from them
Machinery and equipment
Other goods

The main and most common instrument of state regulation of foreign trade is tariff regulation or customs tariff.

customs tariff The Russian Federation is a set of customs duty rates applied to goods transported across the customs border of the Russian Federation. The procedure for the formation and application of the customs tariff of the Russian Federation is established by the law of the Russian Federation "On the customs tariff", which defines the following as the main objectives of the customs tariff of the Russian Federation:

· rationalization of commodity structure of goods import to the Russian Federation;

· maintenance of a rational ratio of export and import of goods, foreign exchange income and expenses on the territory of the Russian Federation;

protection of the Russian economy from the adverse effects of foreign competition;

· provision of conditions for effective integration of the Russian Federation into the world economy.

The variety of customs duties is huge. Their classification is carried out according to various criteria, depending on which the following are distinguished: types of customs duties:

1) according to the method of collection, they distinguish specific customs duties, charged as a fixed amount per unit of taxation (weight, volume, area) for inexpensive standardized goods, and ad valorem customs duties, calculated as a percentage of the value of the goods;

2) by origin they distinguish preferential customs duties, rates at which are below the minimum and often equal to zero, contract fees, used for the goods of those countries with which the relevant agreements are in force, and general(maximum) duties, applied to the goods of those countries that do not enjoy any advantages due to the absence of special agreements with them.

3) by the nature of the duties themselves, they distinguish anti-dumping customs duties used for goods imported at dumping prices, and compensatory customs duties, designed to compensate for the damage caused by foreign export subsidies provided by exporting countries to their producers. Both duties are in addition to normal import duties. The use of antidumping measures is governed by the World Trade Organization (WTO) Antidumping Agreement (AAM). Anti-dumping duties are most often used to protect imports in the United States, the countries of the European Union (EU), Canada, and Australia. Subsidies are regulated by the WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (ACM);

4) according to the object of taxation, customs duties are divided into import duties, as a result of which the domestic price of imported goods rises above the world price, since the value of the import tariff is added to the world price. E export duties lead to that the price of the exporting country is lower than the world price, domestic consumption increases, and domestic production decreases, as a result of which the value of exports falls. transit fees are levied on goods in transit through the territory of a given country, are extremely rare and are used as a means of trade war;

5) by types of rates they distinguish permanent customs duties,in which apply unchanging rates depending on the situation, and variables customs duties, the rates for which may change in cases established by the state.

The second half of the 20th century is characterized by a significant reduction in tariff barriers with a simultaneous increase in the number of non-tariff trade restrictions. Such restrictions are especially actively used by developed countries, although they themselves are demonstrative supporters of free trade. Approximately 20% of all goods imported by the EU, the US and Japan are subject to non-tariff restrictions.

To methods of non-tariff restrictions relate:

· export and import quotas, that is, a cost or quantitative restriction on the volume of exported and imported goods;

· anti-dumping measures, voluntary export restrictions, licensing and embargoes, which together form a group of quantitative restrictions;

· subsidizing and crediting exports;

· financial restrictions in the form of restrictions on the accumulation of foreign exchange, requirements for prepayment of imports and the application of multiple exchange rates.

Today, only 20% of world trade is carried out under the rules of free trade, 25% - under protectionist measures, 25% - within the framework of transnational corporations (TNCs) and another 25% - the share of compensatory trade.

1. Importance of foreign trade for the national economy. Foreign trade is the interaction of a country with foreign countries regarding the movement of goods and services across national borders.

Foreign trade allows the state:

• a) receive additional income from the sale of national goods and services abroad;
• b) saturate the domestic market;
• c) overcome the limited national resources;
• d) increase labor productivity by specializing in world trade in the supply of certain products to the world market.

Foreign trade is characterized by the concepts of export and import: the first involves the export of goods and services abroad and the receipt of foreign currency in return, and the second - their import from abroad with the appropriate payment. Export, like investment, increases a country's aggregate demand and sets in motion the foreign trade multiplier, creating primary, secondary, tertiary, etc. employment. An increase in imports limits this effect due to the outflow of financial resources abroad.

Foreign trade is organized on the principles developed in 1947 and enshrined in the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). It was replaced in 1996 by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which considers foreign trade more broadly to include the exchange of goods services and the sale and purchase of intellectual property.

2. Profitability of foreign trade. The theory of comparative advantage. Export in foreign trade, according to A. Smith, becomes profitable if the costs of producing goods within the country are much lower than those of other states. In this case, goods produced by the national economy have absolute advantages over foreign competitors and can be easily sold abroad. On the other hand, no state can have an absolute advantage in all manufactured goods, therefore, it is necessary to import those that are more expensive domestically and cheaper abroad. Then at the same time there is a direct benefit from both exports and imports.

Based on the absolute advantages of A. Smith, D. Ricardo formulated the theory of comparative costs (advantages), according to which, when determining the profitability of foreign trade, one should compare not the absolute, but the relative effect, and not the costs themselves, but their ratios. At the same time, it should be taken into account that, by producing certain goods in conditions of limited resources, the country is deprived of the opportunity to produce others that are no less necessary for it, therefore, in accordance with the theory of comparative advantages of D. Ricardo, a situation is quite possible in which it is profitable for the country to import goods, even if their domestic production is cheaper. In this case, A. Smith's theory of absolute costs becomes a special case of the theory of comparative costs.

The theory of comparative costs of D. Ricardo in modern conditions is supplemented by the theory of Heckscher-Ohlin, named after two Swedish economists, who proved that countries tend to export not only those goods that have absolute and relative advantages, but also in the production of which relatively excess factors of production are intensively used , but import goods for the production of which there is a shortage of factors in the country. Unlike A. Smith and D. Ricardo, their modern followers believe that both sides benefit from foreign trade - both this country and the rest of the world.

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• Introduction
• Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state
• Chapter 2. Analysis of the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation
• Conclusion
• Bibliographic list

Introduction

Modern world trade is characterized not only by the growth dynamics of its physical volume, but also by a wide variety of commodity structure, directions and principles of product sales in foreign markets. Entering the foreign market, in addition to possessing information about the conditions for interstate and national regulation of export-import flows, is associated with the study of possible forms and methods for implementing a particular type.

Foreign economic activity is one of the main directions of development of many modern states, a source of goods, the production of which is impossible within the country, as well as income from export-import operations. For many countries where, for certain reasons, there are no production processes, foreign economic activity is the only way to provide themselves with the necessary goods.

The foreign trade policy of the state is the most important part of the economic course of the country, this is what determined the relevance of the chosen topic of the test. It should also be taken into account that foreign trade policy is one of the areas of fiscal activity related to the regulation of volumes, commodity structure and geographical orientation of export-import trade flows.

The purpose of this test is to study the theoretical aspect of the concepts of foreign trade and foreign trade policy, as well as to analyze the foreign trade policy of Russia and the foreign trade statistics of the Russian Federation.

foreign trade import

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state

The main form of international economic relations is international trade, which includes trade not only in material goods, but also in various services (transport, financial, tourism, etc.) States and state formations, empires and principalities have long been interconnected by trade relations . The problems of international trade have been of interest to scientists and politicians for a long time. Naturally, various theories arose that explained from the position of the corresponding time period the reasons for the development of foreign trade relations, the reasons for the interaction economic entities, links of national economies. World economy: Textbook for universities / Under. Ed. Prof. Yu.A. Shcherbanin. - M.: UNITY_DANA, 2012.- S. 241

International (foreign) trade is the main and most ancient form of international economic relations and is an exchange of goods and services between different states, developing on the basis of the international division of labor and formed in the 19th century. world market. International trade is characterized by the categories of "export" and "import" of goods. World economy: O.V. Kornienko St. Petersburg: 2009. - S. 7

Under the conditions of an open economy and liberalization of foreign trade, foreign competition plays the role of a factor that reduces the level of concentration in the industry, where there is a monopoly power of market agents, and the degree of market imperfection also decreases. Thus, in terms of development competitive environment the presence of foreign participants in the national market is desirable because it reduces the monopoly power of the national producer. The height of barriers to entry into the industry depends on the rate of import tariffs - the lower the import tariff, the lower the barriers to entry into the industry for a foreign competitor. Consider how you can evaluate the results of using various types of tariff and import quota.

Measuring well-being in an open economy has the following feature: one can measure well-being on a global scale, or one can limit oneself to the scale of a national economy. In the latter case, tariffs and subsidies will have contradictory welfare effects if there is imperfect competition in the domestic market and domestic firms in a closed economy were making economic profits. Under these conditions, the import tariff leads, on the one hand, to an increase in the equilibrium price and a reduction in consumer gain, on the other hand, an increase in sales and profits of the domestic firm. There is a possibility that the increase in welfare due to the increase in the import tariff - due to the increase in the profits of the domestic producer - will outweigh the reduction in consumer gain due to the price increase. If this happens, then we will deal with the optimal tariff, i.e. the tariff will lead to an increase in the welfare of the country. Thus, in markets with imperfect competition, the optimal import tariff may take on a non-zero value. This also applies to other forms of state regulation of foreign economic activity.

Thus, from the point of view of well-being in the national economy, society as a whole may be interested in non-zero barriers to foreign competition.

Foreign trade policy is an important component of sectoral regulation. Import-export flows, dumping, tariffs, subsidies and quotas have a significant impact on the development of markets within the country and on the formation of their structure.

International trade, generated by comparative advantages in different countries and allowing for specialization and efficiency, leads to an increase in overall prosperity. Any restrictions imposed on exports/imports reduce the efficiency of production and worsen the economic situation of the countries using them. The history of foreign trade policy contradicts such a simplified interpretation of liberalism and protectionism in foreign economic relations.

Practice shows that in a number of cases the use of export/import tariffs and quotas can be justified when domestic producers are confronted on the world market by competitors with monopoly power. The state in this case may seek to improve public welfare either by limiting the monopoly power of foreign firms in the domestic market, or by helping domestic producers acquire/strengthen monopoly power in foreign markets.

In the first case, the state uses elements of protectionism to increase the competitiveness of domestic producers in relation to foreign competitors with cost advantages. State regulation instruments can be either import tariffs or import quotas. The main problem of regulation is to achieve a compromise between the interests of consumers, producers and the state budget. In the second case, the state relies on export promotion to increase the profits of domestic producers, using export subsidies. The effectiveness of such a policy is determined by the ratio of the amount of subsidies and the growth of exporters' profits. Consider the problems associated with the implementation of the policy of protectionism and import substitution, if any:

Dominant foreign firm in the domestic market;

oligopoly in international trade. Gogoleva T.N. World economy Trends in theoretical analysis. Textbook, Voronezh., 2003 - S. 16

Foreign trade-trade of any country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Export includes:

1) export of goods manufactured (produced and processed) in the given country;

2) export of raw materials and semi-finished products for processing abroad under customs control with subsequent return;

3) re-export - the export of goods previously imported from abroad, including goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc.;

4) temporary export abroad of national goods (to exhibitions, fairs) with subsequent return or export of previously imported foreign goods (to auctions, exhibitions, fairs);

5) export of products in the order of direct production relations, as well as deliveries within the framework of TNCs.

Import includes:

1) import from abroad of goods, technologies for sale on the importer's domestic market, as well as receiving paid services from a foreign importer for industrial and consumer purposes;

2) import of raw materials, semi-finished products, assemblies, parts for processing in a given country and subsequent export abroad;

3) re-import - return import from abroad of previously exported national goods;

4) temporary importation of goods to international exhibitions, fairs, auctions;

5) import of products within the framework of TNCs.

Foreign trade is characterized by the following indicators:

1) trade turnover (total volume of trade) equal to the sum of exports and imports;

2) trade balance (net exports), equal to the difference between exports and imports;

3) the commodity structure of exports and imports, which is the ratio of commodity groups in world exports and imports (there are over 20 million types of goods in the world);

4) the geographical structure of exports and imports, which is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, distinguished either on a territorial or organizational basis.

The study of the commodity structure of foreign trade is carried out on the basis of the Harmonized System for the Description and Coding of Goods that are the Subject of Trade.

The Classifier is also used for world trade statistics.

goods by enlarged economic groupings.

There are value and physical volume of foreign trade.

The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time in current (changing) prices, indicating current exchange rates.

The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated at constant prices and is used for the purpose of analysis, comparison, and study of the dynamics of foreign trade activity. Traded goods - goods that can move between different countries (Table 1).

Table 1. Incentivestoforeign trade activities

Non-tradable goods are goods that are consumed in the same country where they are produced and do not move between countries.

Differences between tradable and non-tradable goods:

* prices for traded goods are determined by the ratio of supply and demand in the world market and are influenced by supply and demand for them both domestically and abroad; prices for non-tradable goods are determined by the ratio of supply and demand in the national market;

* maintaining a balance of domestic demand and supply for tradable goods is not as important as for non-tradable goods, since the lack of domestic demand can be compensated by an increase in demand from abroad, and the lack of domestic supply by an increase in the supply of foreign goods; for non-tradable goods, maintaining an internal balance of supply and demand is critical;

* the dynamics and level of domestic prices for traded goods follows the dynamics and price levels in other countries; domestic prices for non-tradable goods may differ significantly from the prices of other countries, and the change does not lead to a change in foreign prices for such goods.

Aggregate demand is the amount of production of goods that consumers are willing to collectively purchase at the current price level. Aggregate demand is presented from within the country and from abroad. It consists of the purchase of goods by enterprises, people, government, domestic investment and export of goods abroad.

Aggregate supply is the volume of production of goods that producers are willing to collectively offer to the market at the current price level. Aggregate supply is provided from within any country and from abroad. It consists of domestic production of goods and their imports from abroad.

The distribution of benefits from foreign trade between individual countries largely depends on how domestic prices change under the influence of world prices. commodity markets. Of two countries, the one where prices have changed the most usually wins. This is the so-called benefit distribution rule, according to which the benefits of foreign trade are distributed in direct proportion to price changes in both countries. If in country A relative prices have changed compared to world prices by X%, and in country B by Y%, then

Country A Gain / Country B Gain = X% / Y%. World economy: textbook / T.E. Korchagin.- Ed. 2e, add. And a reworker. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2008 - P.142

The economic efficiency of foreign trade activity is determined in general terms by the fact that the need of the national economy for products is satisfied not at the expense of its domestic production, but at the expense of the costs of manufacturing other (export) goods, the foreign exchange proceeds from the sale of which are used to purchase imported goods necessary for the country.

If the costs of domestic production of the necessary products intended to be received through imports turn out to be more than the costs of producing exported goods, then such a foreign trade exchange is economically beneficial. The difference between these costs is the economic effect of foreign trade, and the quotient from their division is economic efficiency. The effect is positive - trade is profitable. Therefore, when assessing the effect of the development of foreign trade relations of the country, it is advisable to take into account its manifestations in the following areas:

1) budget - due to the inflow of customs payments from the export (import) of goods and services; increase in tax payments of export-oriented enterprises;

2) production - due to the modernization of the technological and production base (when importing equipment);

3) social - by increasing employment while increasing export production.

As a result, the productivity and competitiveness of production increase, economic growth is observed, the needs of the population are more fully satisfied, and the prestige of the country in the world economy is growing. "Methodological support for the analysis of the country's foreign trade relations" Russian Foreign Economic Bulletin No. 3-2014 http://www.rfej.ru/rvv/id/C0039CCAF

Chapter 2. Analysis of the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation

The Russian economy faced a crisis of growth sources back in 2012-2013. against the backdrop of stabilization in oil prices: external demand no longer grew, and the internal source of growth - increased productivity - did not work due to a lack of investment associated with institutional restrictions. The foreign policy confrontation in 2014 led to a reduction in foreign trade, devaluation, an outflow of capital and household deposits, a further drop in investment, and suppression of consumption: economic growth slowed to less than 1% in the first half of the year, while inflation accelerated to 8%. If in the III-IV quarters, GDP growth remains at the level of the II quarter, then the economy will show a zero result for the year, Natalia Akindinova from the HSE Development Center shared her calculations at the ANCEA conference.

Stagnation over the next two years is the most optimistic scenario, assuming the lifting of sanctions in the first half of 2015. “This is a necessary condition to restore ties with the global economy, but not enough for growth – changes are needed,” Akindinova says.

Maintaining sanctions will lead to a recession in 2015 and 2016. The outflow of capital will continue with the accelerated depreciation of the ruble, the shortage of resources will exacerbate the decline in investment (up to 5% against 3% in 2014), and increased inflation will lead to a fall in real incomes of the population. The budget will not be able to return to the policy of raising wages, their indexation, as in 2015, will be below inflation. The decline in consumption and investment will be compounded by problems with commodity exports (non-commodity exports began to decline in 2012) due to the technology embargo. In 2015, GDP may decline by 1.6%, in 2016 - by another 0.3%. If oil prices also fall (from $100 to $85 per barrel on average annually), then the decline will reach 2.1% in 2015 and 1.4% in 2016, Akindinova calculated.

The continuation of the confrontation will lead to increased state intervention in the economy and attempts to compensate for the consequences of sanctions with administrative measures (price controls, capital controls), and may also cause a redistribution of property in favor of state-owned companies, Akindinov does not exclude. Severing ties with foreign contractors will lead to higher costs, as in the late USSR, she compares.

The economic shock came at a time when the consumer factor of economic growth was already exhausted, and the investment factor had not yet begun to work, says Dmitry Belousov from the CMASF: “And without sanctions, we hit very hard. And now if the growth in 2015 is 0%, that's very, very cool.”

All Russian issuers are perceived as representatives of a country under sanctions, and it is impossible to understand in advance what the terms of loans will be and whether they are possible, says Natalia Orlova from Alfa-Bank. Informal "soft sanctions" are the main problem, she adds: "There is a huge zone of uncertainty." Transactions from or to Russian banks can now take up to six days, Orlova says. Restriction of access not only to the debt, but also to the money market led to a crisis in dollar liquidity, a second wave of devaluation and an increase in interest rates.

“The withering away of credit as a source of investment financing will mean that their decline in 2015 will be, although not very large (2.5%, as in January-August 2014), but “more malignant,” Belousov believes: “ This year it is still situational, and next year, I’m afraid, it will be much more fundamental.” Enterprises will start saving on wages, the reduction in real incomes will increase the credit burden on the population, which already at the beginning of 2014 exceeded 21% of income (against 16% in 2008): if the population has to return more than it will borrow, a decline is possible retail trade, says Belousov. “Here are the two halves of the critical mass: minus investment, minus trade turnover – and with an uncertain, but hardly good situation with exports and imports, we will get a slight minus in GDP,” he says.

Russia itself suffers from retaliatory sanctions, Natalya Volchkova from CEFIR concluded. The embargo on food imports not only launched a new wave of inflation - in 2014, according to Akindinova's calculations, it added 1.1 percentage points to inflation; in 2015, according to Orlova's calculations, - up to 1.5 percentage points, which is equivalent to a 5% reduction in the supply of food products. It will not be possible to fully compensate for the failure, Volchkova believes: food imports from the countries that fell under the sanctions will fall by 70-90%, from other countries it will grow by only 10-50%. According to her calculations, the adopted embargo is tantamount to raising the tariff from less than 10% to more than 200%. Russia's real GDP losses from this embargo will amount to 0.6%, while for the countries of Europe and the USA the effect is close to zero, while the countries of Latin America and Belarus benefit.

The consequences of Russian anti-sanctions are rising prices, a decrease in household consumption and the welfare of the economy as a whole, Volchkova summarizes: “When they talk about import substitution, it is very surprising: these sanctions do not do anything that could support the expansion of production.” The basis of import substitution is the purchase of equipment, but the exchange rate policy does not contribute to this, and the Ministry of Industry and Trade has promised to increase duties on the import of goods from the machine-building, metallurgical and transport industries. “I tend to view these results as a model of the failure of economic policy,” Volchkova sums up. According to Akindinova, an attempt to reduce economic dependence on the outside world will lead to limiting Russia's already weak involvement in global value chains, further preserving the technological gap. http://www.vedomosti.ru/politics/news/34286301/dva-goda-recessii#ixzz3G1cAYfA4 " The Russian economy is facing a two-year recession

Conclusion

In this work, the goal was to study theoretical aspects foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state. The current state of foreign trade of our state was also studied.

Foreign trade is the total volume of a country's trade with other countries, which consists of imports and exports, characterized by a certain structure of exports and imports in a certain ratio of commodity groups and which has a certain geographical distribution between individual countries.

State regulation is a complex set of methods, methods and tools used by public services to influence economic relations between countries in order to increase the competitiveness of domestic producers in relation to foreign competitors, who have great cost advantages. The problem of state regulation is to reach a compromise between consumers, producers and the budget.

The current state of Russia's foreign economic trade is unfavorable. The introduction of sanctions for political reasons led to negative consequences for the economy of our country - a reduction in foreign trade, an acceleration of inflation, and a slowdown in economic growth. In addition to the decline in non-commodity exports, 2041 is marked by a decline in commodity exports, which may be even deeper due to the continuous annual decline in oil prices.

The food embargo has led to a huge decline in foreign trade, as food imports from countries that are on the sanctions list fell by 70-90%, while imports from other countries are forecast to grow by only 10-50%.

Bibliographic list

1. Gogoleva T.N. World economy Trends in theoretical analysis. Tutorial. - Voronezh: Publishing House of VSU, 2003. - 165 p.

2. World economy: O.V. Kornienko Ed. Peter, St. Petersburg: 2009. - 256 p.

3. World economy: textbook / T.E. Korchagin.- Ed. 2e, add. And a reworker. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2008 - 267 p.

4. World economy: Textbook for universities / Under. Ed. Prof. Yu.A. Shcherbanin. - M.: UNITY_DANA, 2012.-519 p.

5. http://www.rfej.ru/rvv/id/C0039CCAF "Methodological support for the analysis of the country's foreign trade relations" Russian Foreign Economic Bulletin No. 3-2014

6. http://www.vedomosti.ru/politics/news/34286301/dva-goda-recessii#ixzz3G1cAYfA4 “The Russian economy is facing a two-year recession”

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