Perceptual abilities - what is it? There are perceptual, intellectual and motor skills Perceptual skills

Development of the general abilities of the individual

Chapter first. Psychology of general abilities

FOREWORD

One of the features of the modern educational process is the solution of the question of the correlation of the productive foundations of the existing pedagogical paradigms, the use of the diversity of their constructive aspects. For example, this can be said about traditional and innovative approaches.

The struggle between supporters of the accumulation of knowledge and developing strategies today finds a constructive way out in a productive combination of the main methodological provisions. And this is true, since it is necessary to develop a personality, but on the basis of real knowledge. That is why, solving this problem, we tried to combine the possibilities of developing the cognitive sphere of students and mastering the knowledge of physical disciplines. This allows us to solve one of the main, if not the main educational task - the formation of motivation for cognitive activity, since today its priority over abilities and efforts is already obvious.

Motivating students for knowledge is, first of all, a conversation about awakening their desire to learn, discover the secrets of the universe, become interested in the laws of the world. All this is possible only against the background of a positive attitude to what is happening in the classroom, positive emotions, kind, open, safe, comfortable interaction between the subjects of educational activity. This should be facilitated by the proposed forms of work with students. Recommendations on the methodical use of these materials can only be general, since each teacher has his own style of work and can vary the proposed exercises to suit his didactic tasks. These tasks can be used both as reinforcing, testing, “warming up” material, and as tasks for quizzes, quizzes, homework samples, etc.

An important remark concerns the structure of the presented assignments. Modern psychology gravitates toward holism and therefore considers it unproductive to divide the cognitive sphere of the individual into discrete components in the form of separate cognitive processes. To a greater extent, this applies to diagnostic and formative procedures. It is no coincidence that the processes of memory and attention are called cross-cutting, because they accompany the course of all other mental processes and are updated with any inclusion of a person’s mental reflection of reality. It is also obvious that the personality develops as a whole, and not in parts. That is why the division of exercises into sections is conditional. This also applies to the division within sections of exercises according to the types, properties and individual characteristics of the student's cognitive sphere.

CHAPTER 1. PSYCHOLOGY OF GENERAL ABILITIES

Skills are individual psychological features distinguishing some people from others. We are talking only about those features that contribute to successful activity. Abilities are not reducible to knowledge, skills and abilities, although they determine the speed of their acquisition. Abilities are personality traits that affect the effectiveness of activities. Ability is one of the basic qualities of the psyche. They realize the function of reflection and transformation of reality in practical and ideal forms.

Among the first researchers of abilities was the Englishman F. Galton, who believed that the level of abilities (intelligence) depends on psychophysiological parameters, and developed the idea of ​​the hereditary conditionality of individual psychological differences between people.

Modern researchers, following Ch. Spearman, identify general abilities, including the totality of all cognitive processes - the “general factor”, according to which intelligence is considered as a kind of “mental energy”, the level of which determines the success of solving test tasks of any nature. The "general factor" of intelligence has the highest weight when performing tasks on abstract relations, and the smallest - when performing sensory tasks. In addition, there are "special factors" that contribute only to certain intellectual abilities, among which are the following:

Linguistic abilities (the ability to express a thought);

Musical abilities (the ability to compose, perform, understand music);

Logical and mathematical abilities (ability to analyze, synthesize);

Spatial intelligence (the ability to manipulate objects in the mind);

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (the ability to use motor functions);

Interpersonal intelligence (the ability to understand others);

Intrapersonal intelligence (the ability to understand one's feelings). D. Gilford built a cubic model of intelligence. Intelligence was represented by three dimensions: operations (cognition, memory, evaluation, divergent and convergent productivity), content (pictorial, symbolic, semantic and behavioral material), results (elements, classes, relationships, systems, types of transformations and conclusions). Thus, 120 characteristics of intelligence were identified. Traditional domestic psychology claims that abilities are acquired during activity. However, there are facts that cannot be explained within the framework of this approach. For example, animals of the same species are trained differently: some are good, others are bad. Cases of early manifestation of abilities in ontogenesis are also well known (W. Mozart, I. Repin).

The development of intellectual abilities in ontogenesis has a certain dynamics:

3-18 years old - the ability to form categories develops;

3-13 years - spatial intelligence develops;

3-22 years old - mathematical logic develops;

3-17 years - the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships;

3-18 years - verbal intelligence develops.

Throughout life, the ability to self-regulate (the meta-cognitive component of intelligence) develops.

Let's take a look at some points of view. D. Cattell believed that there is a liquid innate intelligence that crystallizes by the age of 20. D. Hebb argued that there is intelligence A (innate) and intelligence B (innate characteristics, supplemented by environmental influences). G. Eysenck believes that the ratio of congenital and acquired in a person is 70: 30%.

The factors influencing the development of abilities include genetic, intrauterine development (mother's diseases, fetal nutrition), the moment of birth, environment(mental stimulation, support, nutrition), social conditions.

So, the definition of abilities as properties of functional systems that implement individual mental functions allows us to approach their classification on the basis of the traditional division of cognitive mental processes, since the division of abilities into general and special is conditional, since special abilities are nothing more than the predominance and development some aspects of general abilities or individual cognitive processes. Abilities in relation to the flow of these processes will be manifested in the characteristics of their productivity.

Sensory abilities

Sensation is a reflection of individual properties of objects of the surrounding world in the process of direct interaction with them. Sensations are connected with analyzers. Irritants for analyzers: for the eye - electromagnetic waves; for the ear - mechanical vibrations of air; for taste buds - the electrochemical properties of the substance. Up to 80% of information a person receives with the help of visual images. The auditory analyzer signals about occurring events. The olfactory analyzer evaluates odors. There are no neutral smells for a person, each smell corresponds to the objective world and is emotionally colored. For example, one of the classifications describes fragrant, sour, burnt and caprylic (putrid) odors. Taste analyzer is a neurophysiological system, the work of which provides analysis chemical substances entering the oral cavity. The sensitivity of different parts of the tongue to taste stimuli is not the same. With prolonged action of taste stimuli, adaptation occurs, which occurs faster to sweet and salty substances, more slowly to sour and bitter ones. Tactile sensitivity consists of four basic sensations: cold, heat, pressure, pain. Kinesthetic sensations - sensations from muscle contraction / stretching, they provide coordination of movements. Introreceptive sensations - sensations from the state of internal organs: hunger, thirst, pain. In order for a sensation to arise, the action of a stimulus stimulus is necessary. In physiological processes, there is a stimulus, but there is no sensation and perception. There are unconscious and conscious levels of reflection. The threshold of perception is such a value of the stimulus that the psyche is able to reflect. There are absolute thresholds of perception: maximum and minimum. For vision, the maximum absolute threshold is 48 km (a candle on a dark night). For hearing - 6 m (ticking of a watch). For taste - 1 teaspoon of sugar per 8 liters of water. For smell - 1 drop of perfume for 6 rooms. For touch - the wing of a fly falling 1 cm from the hand. The relative threshold of perception is the amount by which the stimulus must change in order for the subject to perceive this change. For kinesthetic sensations, this is a change in weight by 1/30. The following properties of sensations are distinguished:

1) quality - a feature of sensations that allows you to distinguish one sensation from another;

2) intensity - a qualitative indicator, determined by the strength of the stimulus;

3) duration - a temporary indicator of the action of the stimulus. Feelings are classified according to several criteria:

1) by types of receptors (modalities): visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, etc.;

2) by the nature of the stimulus: photo-, chemo-, mechanical;

3) by the location of the receptor: exteroceptive (distant and contact), interoreceptive (visceral), proprioceptive (kinesthetic).

Patterns of operation of sensory channels:

1) adaptation - adaptation. Distinguish between positive and negative adaptations. Incomplete negative adaptation - dulling of sensitivity; complete - disappearance. Low adaptation exists in the auditory analyzer, tactile analyzers;

2) synesthesia - the mutual influence of sensations: the stimulus acts on one organ, and the sensation occurs in another;

3) sensitization - increased sensitivity as a result of compensation or analyzer exercises.

As indicators of productivity, in other words, what needs to be developed and trained, there are:

The speed of sensations, determined by the minimum time required to reflect external influences;

Differentiation, subtlety of sensations, characterizing the ability to distinguish between two or more stimuli;

Discrimination speed;

The accuracy of sensations as the correspondence of the sensation that has arisen to the characteristics of the stimulus;

Sustainability of the sensitivity level as the duration of maintaining the required intensity of sensation.

Since sensory abilities are "windows" to the inner and outer world of a person, their development is the first and indispensable step towards high intelligence.

Perceptual abilities

Perception is the process of forming, with the help of active actions, a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects the analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception, the entire object is represented as a unit of interaction in the totality of its invariant properties. The image of perception acts as a result of the synthesis of sensations, the possibility of which, according to A. N. Leontiev, arose in phylogeny in connection with the transition of living beings from a homogeneous, objectively unformed environment to an environment, objectively formalized. The result of sensation is inner feelings, and the result of perception is objects outside of us. Perception turns on the thought process. Perception is an active process, it is objective, holistic, constant, categorical. There are various approaches to explaining the mechanisms of perception. According to the associative theory of perception, the image is built from the sum of individual elementary sensations. Gestalt psychology, on the other hand, claims that we spontaneously "grasp" a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. Domestic psychologists, in turn, interpret perception as an active assimilation of socio-historical experience in practical activities. Perceptual actions are derived from practice. Modern cognitive theories of perception describe a simultaneous inductive-deductive way of processing information. Recognizing images, we compare them with a mental standard, according to another version - with a prototype (average type). The dynamics of the process of perception is as follows:

Primary allocation of a complex of stimuli and the decision that they belong to one object:

Search in memory for a similar or close sensation;

Assigning the perceived object to a certain category with the search for additional features that confirm or refute the hypothesis;

Making a final decision.

Considering perception in ontogenesis, A. V. Zaporozhets distinguishes three stages:

a) real actions with the subject;

b) obtaining additional visual information;

c) curtailment of perceptual actions, the process of perception seems to be passive.

There are two general classifications perceptions:

1) by modality: visual, auditory, kinesthetic;

2) according to the form of matter: the perception of space, the perception of movement, the perception of time.

The perception of space consists of the perception of form, size, distance. In the form, the contour sign is the most informative. The perception of the size of objects is determined by their size on the retina. Remoteness is perceived through accommodation and convergence. In the perception of space, there is a psychological phenomenon of the illusion of perception.

The perception of movement is a reflection of the change in the position of objects in space. There are two ways to perceive motion:

a) fixing the gaze on a fixed point;

b) fixing the gaze on a moving point.

The perception of time is a reflection of the duration, speed, sequence of phenomena.

Perception performance characteristics include:

The volume of perception (the number of objects that a person can perceive during one fixation);

Accuracy (correspondence of the resulting image to the features of the perceived object);

Completeness (the degree of such compliance);

Speed ​​(the time required for an adequate perception of an object or phenomenon);

Emotional coloration. Perceptual abilities, being the basis of sensory cognition, are the most important component in the development of the general abilities of students. At one time, B. G. Ananiev pointed out this, noting that a sign of a child’s readiness for school would be high level development

observation.

Attenuation abilities

Attention is the ordering of information coming from outside in terms of the priority of the tasks facing the subject. Attention is the focus and concentration of mental activity on an object due to its situational or constant significance. Attention is a focal phenomenon. Attention slows down unnecessary, activates the reactions that are needed at the moment.

Types of attention:

I. Involuntary attention (orienting reflex):

1) forced (solves the problems of phylogenesis);

2) involuntary (solves problems of ontogeny);

3) habitual, professionally conditioned. Sources of involuntary attention:

a) the intensity of the stimulus;

b) movement;

c) suddenness;

d) rhythmic repetition of stimuli.

II. Voluntary attention is the ability to overcome side stimuli in the course of purposeful activity. The mechanism through which voluntary attention is carried out is the second signaling system.

III. Post-voluntary attention is a phenomenon that occurs when activity continues, goals and interest remain, and efforts go away.

Attention properties:

1) stability (concentration);

2) selectivity;

3) switching - the transition from one activity to another. Switching indicators: time, productivity, quality (errors). Switch success factors: Switch success decreases as we move from easy to difficult activities; success depends on motivation; success is affected by the completion / incompleteness of the work;

4) distribution - simultaneous performance of several types of activities (the more complex the types of activities, the more difficult the distribution; it is difficult to combine activities of the same type); for the successful implementation of several types of activities, it is desirable that at least one of them be automated;

5) the amount of attention - the number of elements clearly perceived at the same time (5-7 elements in 0.1 s).

Absent-mindedness is a characteristic of lack of attention. Types of absent-mindedness: 1) imaginary (false) - a person is concentrated on one thing; 2) true - caused by organic lesions.

Considering the ontogeny of attention, L. S. Vygotsky singles out its four stages: 1) other people act in relation to the child; 2) the child enters into relationships with other people; 3) the child begins to act on others; 4) the child begins to act on himself. Chronology of ontogeny of attention:

I stage. first months of life. The appearance of an orienting reflex as a sign of involuntary attention.

II stage. End of the 1st year of life. The emergence of orienting-research activity as the foundation of voluntary attention.

III stage. Beginning of the 2nd year of life. Discovery of the rudiments of voluntary attention under the influence of verbal instructions from adults. Looking at an object named by an adult.

IV stage. second or third years of life. High level of the initial stage of development of voluntary attention.

V stage. Four or five years. The ability to direct attention under the influence of complex instructions from an adult.

VI stage. Five or six years. The emergence of an elementary form of voluntary attention under the influence of self-instruction based on external stimuli.

VII stage. School age. Further development, improvement of voluntary attention, including volitional.

Productivity properties of attention processes:

The duration of concentration, i.e., stability in time, concentration, manifested in distraction from an outsider;

Breadth of distribution (volume of simultaneously performed actions);

Switching speed: switching time, amount of work performed per unit of time, switching accuracy, no errors.

Attention productivity - key characteristic high level of intellectual abilities of students.

Mnemic abilities

Memory is the highest end-to-end mental process of capturing, preserving and reproducing the acquired experience. The types of memory (according to the duration of storage and the amount of information) are as follows:

genetic;

Sensory: information is stored for no more than 1.5 s, displays the physical characteristics of stimuli;

11- iconic (echoic): instant imprinting ensures the translation of information into short-term memory;

Short-term: characterized by a relatively short storage time of information that is lost due to the time factor or due to the receipt new information, and a small number of reproducible elements (7 ± 2 in 20 s);

Operational: information is stored in such volume and such time that is necessary for the operation;

Long-term: information processing unit characterized by practically unlimited storage time and amount of stored information. There is no direct access to this memory, so the individual must specifically read the required information.

The types of memory allocated on the basis of individual mental functions are as follows:

Based on will: arbitrary and involuntary;

Based on perception: visual, auditory, kinesthetic;

Based on imagination: creative, recreative;

Based on thinking: visual-effective, figurative, logical;

Based on emotions: emotional.

Let us briefly dwell on the most common theories of memory. Aristotle believed that information is imprinted by association, which are of three types:

1) by the adjacency of elements (spatio-temporal adjacency);

2) by the similarity of elements;

3) by contrast of elements.

Gestalt psychology: memory functions due to the integrity of the gestalt, i.e., the well-organized structure of the material.

Domestic psychology connects the patterns of memorization with the motivation of activity.

Cognitive psychology believes that the quality of memorization depends on the level of information processing. So, D. Craik and R. Lockhart believe that there are four levels of processing:

Structural (for example, when memorizing a typed word: in what font it is typed);

Phonemic (what word does this word rhyme with);

Semantic (what sentence can be made with this word);

Correlation with the subject (how this word applies to me). Forgetting theories:

I. Decay Theory: Information fades if it is not used, not repeated. However, the phenomenon of reminiscence (secondary, more accurate reproduction) does not allow us to limit ourselves to this approach.

II. Interference theory: information, superimposed on the previous or subsequent one, makes it difficult to reproduce. There are two types of interference: proactive (the new is actively inhibited) and retroactive (the old is replaced by the new).

III. The theory of situational forgetting: all information is imprinted; the question is not how to remember, but how to get information.

The specificity of human memory, according to most psychologists, is the conscious use of special ways of remembering information. They are called mnemonics. For example:

1) grouping method (classification of objects according to a common feature);

2) chain method (establishment of associative links of subsequent images with previous ones);

3) the method of rhythm and rhymes (the rhythmic basis helps to capture faster);

4) the method of acronyms and acrostics (acronyms are abbreviations: for example, UN, NATO, etc.; acrostics: the first letters of each line form a word vertically). Memory performance characteristics:

Volume - the amount of material that can be reproduced immediately after its single presentation;

Memorization speed - the time required to fully memorize the material;

Playback speed - the speed of retrieving information from memory over time;

Accuracy of memorization and reproduction, recognition - the ability to reproduce information without distortion, characterized by the degree of correspondence between the perceived and reproduced material;

Storage duration.

Memory is an extremely important cognitive process. Despite the fact that it is attributed to the partial characteristics of the psyche, it is also obvious that there is practically no personality without memory.

In the simplest form, memory is realized as the recognition of previously perceived objects, in a more complex one, it appears as a reproduction in the representation of objects that are not currently given in actual perception. This type of visual memory is called representation.

Representation is the highest mental process of reproduction and reconstruction of past images. The images of representations, as a rule, are less vivid and detailed than the images of perception, but they reflect the most characteristic of a given subject. Differences in the brightness, stability and accuracy of memory representations are very individual. At the same time, the degree of generalization of a particular representation may be different, in connection with which a distinction is made between individual and general representations. By means of a language that introduces socially developed methods of logical operation of concepts into the representation, the representation is translated into an abstract concept. Memory representations differ in the leading analyzer (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory) and in their content (mathematical, technical, musical). View properties:

Planar image;

Fragmentation;

schematization;

Bias colors towards the main colors of the spectrum, color pallor compared to the primary image;

Panoramic (going beyond the perceptual field);

The dynamism of the construction of the representation (the image does not appear immediately, but unfolds in space and time);

Temporal inversion (in 5 minutes you can imagine your whole life); inconstancy, fluidity of images;

Generalization of images.

There are the following theories of representation storage:

1) the theory of images - all representations are stored in pictures, like photographs in an album;

2) proposition theory - information is stored in an encoded, possibly digital, form;

3) the theory of double coding - some words immediately correlate with images, and some - through interpretation.

Performance indicators can be:

Brightness - clarity, indicating the degree of approximation of the secondary image to the result of visual reflection of the properties of the object (metric, modal, intensity);

The accuracy of images, determined by the degree of correspondence of the image to the object perceived earlier;

Completeness, which characterizes the structure of the image, the reflection in it of the shape, size and spatial position of objects;

The detail of the information presented in the image.

Thinking abilities

Thinking is the highest mental process of transforming reality and creating a new reality; mediated and generalized reflection by a person of reality in its essential connections and relationships. Thinking can act as a process and as a result. The result is thought. Forms of the result of thinking:

1) concept (reflects essential properties, connections, relationships);

2) judgment (assertion or denial of something);

3) inference (inductive or deductive) - a conclusion based on a judgment.

There are such types of thinking as:

1) by the nature of the tasks to be solved: a) theoretical, b) practical;

2) by means: a) visual-figurative, b) verbal-logical;

3) by the nature of the flow: a) discursive (expanded) - there is a sequential enumeration of various options for solving the problem, most often on the basis of coherent logical reasoning, where each subsequent step is determined by the result of the previous one, b) intuitive (insight);

4) according to the degree of novelty: a) productive, b) reproductive. Thinking as a process can take two forms: a) formation, assimilation of concepts and b) problem solving.

J. Piaget identified four stages in the development of the intellect (thinking). In the intellect, the researcher saw the result of the internalization of external actions and distinguished the following stages of its development:

I. Stage of sensorimotor intelligence (from birth to 2 years): precedes the period of intensive mastery of speech. At this stage, coordination of perception and movement is achieved, the child interacts with objects, their perceptual and motor signals, but not with signs, symbols and diagrams representing the object. This period is divided into 6 private stages: exercise of reflexes (from 0 to 1 month); first skills and primary circular reactions (from 1 to 4-6 months); coordination of vision and grasping and secondary circular reactions when the goal and means of achieving it are bred (from 4-6 to 8-9 months); the stage of "practical" intellect, when tools begin to be used to achieve the goal (from 8 to 11 months); tertiary circular reactions and the search for new means to achieve the goal, when the child begins to try out his own movements outside the achievement of specific goals (from 11-12 to 18 months); the child combines internalized schemes of action to solve new problems, which allows them to be solved internally (from 18 to 24 months),

II. Stage of pre-operational intelligence (from 2 to 7 years): speech is actively turned on as a means of reflecting actions.

III. Stage of operational intelligence, or stage of concrete operations (from 7 to 12-14 years old): mental operations become reversible. Previously formed mental actions at the level of specific operations acquire the property of a mobile balance when the action of "reversal" becomes possible, i.e., the mental reproduction of a series of practical actions in reverse order, up to reaching the initial position. At this stage of intellectual development, the conceptual mapping of the environment acquires the features of stability, which is possible due to the creation of cognitive structures, which were called groupings. At the age of 7-10, the child masters simple operations, such as classification, seriation, one-to-one correspondence, and at the age of 9-12, he masters the coordinate system, projective concepts. The concepts of number, time, movement, geometric concepts are also formed. Based on the implementation of cognitive operations, the child acquires the ability to foresee the results of his actions. This makes it quite independent of the empirical reality of a particular activity. At the same time, at this stage, mental operations are not yet fully completed, they are not formalized completely and depend on the specific content, and therefore they develop unevenly in various subject areas. In addition, specific operations at this stage have not yet been combined into a single whole.

IV. Stage of formal operations (from the age of 14): development of abstract thinking. Formal operations are a system of operations of the 2nd order, built on top of specific operations. Having mastered the formal operations, the child can build his own hypothetico-deductive reasoning based on independent hypotheses and verification of their consequences in real terms. In such reasoning, it becomes possible to replace specific relations with symbols that are quite universal in nature. Divergent thinking is based on the strategy of generating multiple solutions to a single problem. Convergent thinking is based on the strategy of precise use of pre-learned algorithms for solving a specific problem, i.e. when an instruction is given on the sequence and content of elementary operations for solving this problem. Psychologists, based on studies of intelligence and creativity, identified 4 groups of schoolchildren according to the degree of their adaptation: the first group (high intelligence, high creative potential) - children adapt well, are sociable, independent, prone to deliberate risk, feel comfortable at school; the second group (high intellect, low creativity) - constrained, indecisive, often uncommunicative, afraid to make a mistake, do not take risks; the third group (low intelligence, high creative potential) - it is difficult to adapt, it is difficult to master the program, they feel comfortable in creative lessons; the fourth group (low intelligence, low creativity) - adapt well due to low requirements for themselves.

P. Ya. Galperin at the turn of the 1940s-1950s. developed the concept of the phased formation of mental actions. The main core of this concept was a description of the totality of psychological conditions and mechanisms that reveal the patterns of formation of human actions, concepts, images. The following conditions were described as conditions: the formation of adequate motivation; formation of a complete orientation; transferring actions to a given plan; changing the interizable action in a number of parameters (generalization, brevity, etc.). This theory is based on a number of assumptions: before performing a new action, an active orientation of the subject in the conditions of the action is necessary; the construction of the action is carried out with a predominant basis on the instruments of mental activity, which are distinguished as standards, signs, measures; perception and thinking are internalized external objective actions. In the context of this theory, the groups of conditions required for mastering a new mental action are described: 1) familiarization with the elements of future activity in practical terms; 2) examination of the finished sample; 3) performance of actions based on external objects; 4) performing an action in terms of loud speech;

5) external speech is curtailed, pronunciation goes on the internal plane;

6) the plan of inner speech is curtailed, the action is carried out at the level of intellectual skills.

Thinking as a process has two forms: the assimilation of concepts and the solution of problems. The study of the formation of concepts in children was carried out in domestic psychology first of all, L. S. Vygotsky and L. S. Sakharov. Each concept contains a special objective action that reproduces the object of knowledge through the use of certain tools.

There are 3 stages in the formation of concepts: 1) the absence of a formed concept, when the child randomly selects a group of objects and calls them a certain concept; 2) concepts-complexes - the child forms concepts according to the principle of complementarity, complementarity; 3) the emergence of true concepts.

The logic of teaching the assimilation of concepts involves a sequence of a number of steps:

1) learn and reproduce the concept;

2) define the concept;

3) reveal the content of the concept, i.e. show the internal structure and constituent components of the concept;

4) to establish interconceptual connections with above-, below-, adjacent concepts.

Thinking productivity indicators can be considered:

The speed of thought processes;

Flexibility;

Originality;

criticality.

Linguistic ability

L. S. Vygotsky noted that genetically thinking and speech have different roots, initially they performed different functions: speech - communicative, thinking. - transformation of reality. At the age of 2-3 years there is a critical moment of the meeting of the processes of speech and thinking. Thinking becomes speech (verbal), and speech becomes intellectual. J. Piaget believed that when a child downloaded, internal (autistic) thinking is developed, later - egocentric speech, and only then - external speech. L. S. Vygotsky, in turn, believed that external speech arises first, then egocentric speech, and finally, internal speech. Egocentric speech - speaking without trying to stand on the point of view of the interlocutor, which is typical for a child. According to J. Piaget, the child initially lacks such intellectual operations that make it possible to recognize the differences between one's own and someone else's points of view. If a child develops in an environment impoverished in terms of communication, then the share of his egocentric speech is quite large, and in a situation of jointly organized work of children, it drops sharply and practically disappears after 7 years. Inner speech is a hidden verbalization that accompanies the process of thinking. Its manifestations are most pronounced in the mental solution of various problems and planning, attentive listening to the speech of other people, reading texts to oneself, memorization and recall. In terms of inner speech, the logical ordering of the perceived data is carried out, their inclusion in a certain system of concepts, self-instruction is carried out, and an analysis of one's actions and experiences is carried out. According to its logical and grammatical structure, which is essentially determined by the content of thought, inner speech is a generalized semantic complexes consisting of fragments of words and phrases, with which various visual images and conventional signs are grouped. When faced with difficulties or contradictions, inner speech acquires a more detailed character and can turn into an internal monologue, whisper or loud speech, in relation to which it is easier to exercise logical and social control. The development of speech begins from 3 months (the process of cooing), there is an active preparation of the articulatory apparatus. The process of understanding speech begins (at first the child understands only intonation) - that is, an impressive speech is formed. By 9-10 months, the child begins to pronounce two-syllable words. Expressive speech is formed in the 2nd year of life. Expressive speech is the process of generating a speech statement, presented in oral or written form. The beginning of this process lies in the formation of a general idea, then the internal speech is built, which is then translated into the actual external speech. By the age of 2, the active vocabulary reaches 300 words. When a child starts asking a lot of questions, this is a sign that

speech becomes intelligent. By the age of 3, a child's vocabulary reaches 1,000 words. There are 3 lines of speech development: 1) mastery of the phonemic structure of speech; 2) comprehension of the semantic level (by 4-5 years); 3) assimilation of syntax (patterns of connection of words). An applied area of ​​psychology that studies a linguistic personality from the point of view of its speech behavior is psycholinguistics. Sections of psycholinguistics:

1) phonosemantics - sounds carry meaning;

2) the study of lexemes (words) - the semantic organization of memory is studied;

3) word formation - a person understands the meaning, but does not find the right word and comes up with a new one (a horseman instead of a groom, a filmmaker instead of a movie distributor);

4) grammatical psycholinguistics - deals with the question "Does the grammatical structure of speech carry a semantic load?" In texts, we can isolate the psychological and linguistic meaning;

5) text in speech activity - in order to understand the meaning, you need to explore the text as a whole. To understand the text you need common sense, logic. Characteristics of the text: integrity (unity of intent and form) and coherence (connections within a speech statement);

7) the study of non-verbal components: a) paralinguistics (voice quality: timbre, loudness, pitch, speed of pronouncing words). For schoolchildren lower grades the optimal speed of perceived speech is 40-60 words / min, for teenagers - 60-100, for high school students - 80-120 words / min. A low voice is perceived as more pleasant; b) extralinguistics (pauses, laughter, crying, sighs, coughing - very ambiguous mediators of our speech, indicating the context, attracting / repelling attention); c) olfactory - the study of pleasant / unpleasant, artificial / natural odors; d) visual parameters (from 70 to 90% of information is transmitted through the eyes; if 2/3 of the conversation is looked into the eyes of the interlocutor, the contact will be good); e) kinetics: movements of the arms, legs, torso, gait. Non-verbal responses are more difficult to control than verbal ones, so body language can say more than words; f) proxemics - the study of the role of space in communications.

The following characteristics serve as indicators of the development of the function of speech: clarity, accessibility, consistency, structuredness, expressiveness, informativeness, correctness, purity of speech, speech planning, its meaningful volume, evidence, reasoning, vocabulary richness, relevance, tact. The performance characteristics of the non-verbal component include the concept of congruence, i.e., the correspondence of speech and bodily expression. Imagination is the highest mental process of reflecting reality in new unusual forms, images; a person's ability to build new images by processing mental components acquired in past experience. In the imagination, there is a figurative anticipation of the results that can be achieved with the help of certain actions. Imagination is characterized by a high degree of visibility and concreteness. One of the mechanisms of creative imagination, in which the goal is the creation of a new, not yet existing object, is the process of introducing into it some property of an object from another area. Developed imagination is the key to the formation of a creative view of the world. Types of imagination:

a) active - passive;

b) creative - recreating;

c) voluntary - involuntary.

Arbitrary imagination is manifested in the purposeful solution of scientific, technical and artistic problems; involuntary imagination manifests itself in dreams, meditative images. Intuitionists (for example, James) considered the function of imagination to be primary, and other mental functions to be threaded on imagination. They considered perception as a process of interpreting reality. 3. Freud believed that the child realizes his needs, and therefore does not need reality. The mind of the child is dreaming. 3. Freud on this issue adjoins the intuitionists, and J. Piaget agreed with them, who believed that the child lives in an autistic world. Associationists (for example, W. Wundt) believed that the function of the imagination is secondary. Imagination is a combination of a person's experience. L. S. Vygotsky also came to the conclusion that the function of imagination is secondary, it develops spasmodically after the child has mastered speech, the sign system. Imagination is more developed in adults, as they have more experience. The influence of imagination on psychosomatics is varied and extensive: iatrogenic diseases (autosuggested or suggested by a doctor), didactogenic disorders (caused by pedagogical errors).

Characteristics of the productivity of imaginative processes - novelty, originality and meaningfulness of the processing of experience data; the breadth of operating with images, understood as the ability to perform transformations of various materials; a type of operation that can be characterized either by a change in the position of an imaginary object, or by a change in its structure, or by a combination of these transformations.

The relationship between an officer and subordinates is not formed instantly, but in the process of a series of stages. They can be listed in the following sequence: preparation for perception, perception (social perception), impression, understanding, fixation of attitude, preparation for expression of attitude. Consider the most significant characteristics of each of the stages.

At the stage of preparation for perception, it is important how the officer imagines relations with new to him, unfamiliar people, what motives he is going to be guided by when choosing an asset, how he will evaluate everything that happens in the unit.

Perception is the reaction of instantaneous vision. Perception can be directed, when an officer, watching a subordinate with interest, pays attention to all facets of his behavior, or unconscious, when a person involuntarily fixes some features of the people around him. In either case, both correct and distorted perception is possible. The latter arises most often as a result of a superficial approach, when a young officer sees what he wants to see in a person, and not what is actually there.

It is known that there are individual differences in the interests, orientation, tastes of different people. Therefore, the perception of the same phenomena in different people may be different. For example, a cadet who knows his limitations in physical fitness and strives to develop strength perceives the actions of a trained warrior as a role model. But if he does not see the need to become strong, for him the athletic success of a colleague is of little importance. But a strong influence on such a cadet can be produced by a person who, for example, plays the guitar well. So certain value orientations determine the corresponding type of perception. As a result, it may be complete, incomplete or distorted.

As can be seen from the above examples, the development of relationships can go in different directions, depending on the individual experience of perception of each serviceman and other personal characteristics. The impression of another person is characterized as a state of crystallization of perception. It may be correct, incomplete or incorrect. It depends on the mood, the officer's own position and the position of the soldier in the team. At the same time, official position, service life, specialty, and activity in communication are especially significant.

Understanding comes as a result of understanding the actions of a subordinate. In this case, misunderstanding or misunderstanding of them is possible. Understanding is facilitated by the rapid accumulation of experience in communicating with people in one team (everyone is in sight of each other), close personal contacts.

The fixation of the attitude consists in the fact that as a result of the analysis of the prevailing opinions about this or that subordinate, an individual attitude towards this warrior is formed in the mind. It is a complex mental formation and can be expressed by the concepts: "respect - contempt", "trust - suspicion", "sympathy - hostility", "care - indifference", "goodwill - malice".

Preparation for the expression of attitude is the prediction of certain situations that may arise in the course of communication with a subordinate, and hence the adoption of an appropriate action plan, making a kind of forecast.

An important role in understanding another person is played by the perception and understanding of his speech. The perception of another person's speech is a complex process. There are many psychological barriers that prevent understanding what is heard. The French scientist A. Mol gives, in particular, such a humorous example of a "spoiled telephone".

The captain says to the foreman: "As you know, tomorrow there will be a solar eclipse, and this does not happen every day. Gather the personnel tomorrow at 5 o'clock on the parade ground in marching clothes. They will be able to observe this phenomenon, and I will give them the necessary explanations. If they go rain, then there will be nothing to observe, so in that case, leave the people in the barracks.

The foreman conveys the following to the duty sergeant: “By order of the captain, tomorrow morning at 5 o’clock there will be a solar eclipse in marching clothes. The captain on the parade ground will give the necessary explanations, and this does not happen every day. If it rains, there will be nothing to observe, then this phenomenon will take place in the barracks."

The duty sergeant informs the corporal: "By order of the captain tomorrow morning at 5 o'clock there will be an eclipse on the parade ground of people in marching clothes. The captain will give the necessary explanations in the barracks about this rare phenomenon if it rains, and this does not happen every day."

The corporal tells the soldiers: "Tomorrow at 5 o'clock the captain will make a solar eclipse in marching clothes on the parade ground. If it rains, then this rare phenomenon will take place in the barracks, and this does not happen every day."

One soldier to another: "Tomorrow, very early, at 5 o'clock, the sun on the parade ground will produce an eclipse of the captain in the barracks. If it rains, then this rare phenomenon will take place in marching clothes, and this does not happen every day."

Each of us knows something similar from our own experience. This is primarily due to the fact that a thought that is not always clear and understandable to the speaker is easily perceived by another person. And there are reasons for this. folk wisdom says: "Thought spoken is a lie." Psychological studies show that the intended message is significantly distorted in the process of presentation. If we take what was conceived as 100%, then what was said contains 70% of the original information. In the next phase of the perception process, what is heard is 80% of what was said, and this is already 56% of the original information. At the stage of understanding, 70% of what was heard remains, which is 39% of primary information. Only 60% of what is understood is remembered. Thus, only about 24% of the primary information "settles" in the interlocutor's memory. And if now we take this volume as 100%, then when retelling, 30% of the information will be lost again. Thus, about 16%, that is, approximately one sixth, remains of the primary information. Knowing this, you can already take the example of a “damaged phone” without humor. Everyone needs to learn to listen.

According to the level of development of listening skills, officers can be divided into three categories: a) attentive; b) passive; c) unbalanced.

The first category includes persons who treat the speaker with respect and are interested in understanding him. When listening to the chief, such an officer tries to focus on a complete understanding of everything that is being stated. On the eve of or with the beginning of the conversation, the officer inspires himself: "I'm all - attention." In pauses between phrases, he analyzes what he heard, controlling himself with questions: "Did I understand correctly?", "Should I get the right conclusion?" When ambiguities arise, it is legitimate to turn to the speaker with a request: "Comrade Captain! Sorry, I did not understand what you mean", "Please clarify this." It will be incorrect to sound in such a situation the phrase: "I did not understand you," uttered with irritation.

To clarify the essence of what has been said, it is advisable to use the phrases: "As I understand it, you say that ...", "In other words, you think ...". When receiving any instructions (orders), for a better perception of the meaning, it is legitimate to repeat to yourself what the boss said. In some cases, a clarification is useful: "If I understand correctly, you need to ...", "You need to understand that the task consists in ...".

Attention is externally expressed in the posture, in the direction of the gaze. A nod of the head, a shrug of the shoulders are characteristic gestures, they are easily perceived by the interlocutor, serve as signals that allow the speaker to maintain his line, to achieve greater persuasiveness of the statement. At the same time, patient listening does not mean an indifferent attitude.

The passivity of an officer in listening (the second type of listener) may outwardly resemble a manifestation of patience and restraint. But when the silence becomes long, it can extinguish the activity of the interlocutor. In a conversation, a pause on average should not exceed 5-6 seconds. The yardstick here is a sense of proportion. If you do not feel the pause "drawing out", the speaker has the idea that the interlocutor does not care about him. Complete relaxation, condescending tone, expressed by the proverb: "Meli, Emelya, your week" are unacceptable.

Such reactions, of course, are caused by different reasons. If this is due to fatigue, then it is necessary to take measures to bring yourself to life. The simplest technique: feeling stiffness in the joints, numbness of the muscles, try to smoothly change the position. In some case, it will be right to take the initiative and find a way to break the hearing. You can refer to being busy or feeling unwell by telling the interlocutor: "Sorry, there are urgent matters, let's reschedule our conversation for tomorrow ..." Or: "Sorry, I'm not in shape today ..."

The third type of listener behavior is due to the habits of taking a leading position in a conversation, increased criticality to the statements of other people, and emotional looseness. In this case, it must be borne in mind that when emotions take over, then the possibilities of the mind are limited. Then the perception of information is difficult. You should not get excited if you meet with the opposite point of view. Be patient, let the person speak. Weigh all the pros and cons. Maybe you don't have to object. Watch your posture, if you go "to the side". Outwardly, this is expressed in crossing the arms on the chest, in the tension of the muscles of the body. Such a posture is perceived at the subconscious level by the interlocutor as evidence of disagreement, which prevents mutual understanding.

If the officer's readiness to perceive speech information is low, certain hearing errors occur. As typical mistakes for young officers that prevent the perception of information, researchers identify the following.

• 1. Focusing on the form of presentation, and not on the content of speech (attention to words, not thoughts).
• 2. Focusing on one of the points in a large enumeration of facts and thoughts and not perceiving the main thing in the content presented.
• 3. Disconnection of attention due to fatigue to listen to more presentations of the most essential.
• 4. Turning off attention from the speech even before it ends (it seems that we know well what will be said).
• 5. Focusing attention on doing other things (the habit of listening half-heartedly).
• 6. Directing attention to the features of the appearance and behavior of the speaker (we look, but do not listen).
• 7. Assigning some meaning to the words of the speaker and the motives of his behavior before he fully expresses his position.
• 8. Inability to restrain one's irritation, which does not allow one to concentrate on the subject of conversation.
• 9. Distracting attention from the content of speech in pauses that appear at a slow pace of presentation (side thoughts appear in between).

Perceptual skills are closely related to the development of an officer's powers of observation. Observation largely depends on the psychological attitude. As a rule, we see in a person what we want to see. To activate the process of formation of socio-psychological observation, each officer must:

firstly, to get at least a minimum of information about the relationship between external manifestations and mental states of a person, about facial expressions, gestures, postures, intonations;

secondly, to gain experience in observing and recognizing another person in the learning process and to form stable observation skills;

thirdly, to bring these skills in everyday practice to automatism and use this channel of information without deliberate awareness.

Training in their ability to "read faces" is of great importance for officers. This is a kind of "tool" for the perception of another person, his emotional state. From a wide variety of conditions that arise in military personnel, the following can be distinguished: 1) a calm state in the absence of mental stress; 2) the optimal state with an increase in mental stress (correct reaction); 3) a state of overexcitation (inhibition).

In the conditions of military service, people are well aware individual characteristics expression of emotions in each member of the team. However, insufficiently developed observation skills do not allow most officers to quickly respond to changes in the emotional state of their colleagues. For educational purposes, a table of characteristics has been developed for monitoring and evaluating emotional states. 7 objects were identified for observation: 1) general facial expression (mouth, eyebrows); 2) expression of the eyes; 3) coloring of the skin of the face; 4) hand movement; 5) breathing; 6) intonation of statements; 7) features of behavior. Typical manifestations of an officer's emotional state are given in Table 1.

The most successful observation is the officer who has a more developed sense of empathy for other people. As a rule, such a person subtly expresses his emotional states.

Psychological research shows that when looking at an object, an observant person can identify 12 signs. A weak observer identifies 5 features. Having passed a special training, he is already able to distinguish up to 17 signs.

Table 1. External manifestations of emotional states with an increase in psychological stress

	Types of emotional states
observations	Optimal	overexcitation	lethargy
Mouth, eyebrows, small lips tightly compressed, lips compressed, corners
general expression - movements of the jaw muscles of the mouth are lowered, eyebrows
bami, more tense, anxiously shifted in transference
a strict pronounced expression of a sitsa. Suffering-
facial expression, eyebrows strong facial expression
Shifted at the transfer
Eyes Calm Burning, restless - Sad, under-
attentive eyes, intent gaze
look feminine look, hour-
that blink
Skin color
face redness redness or bruising and the appearance of blotches
shading
Movement Slight tremor Pronounced Sluggish, passive,
hand tremor, decreased amplitude
amplitude and speed, and speed, and accuracy
ty movements, and pony movements.
their accuracy. serfdom
Fussiness
Respiration Noticeable Accelerated, shallow Reduction, sometimes with
some delays
Intonation Increase Louder, Emotionally un-
speed of speech. Strengthening is quiet and slow,
chi. Preserved tones, into- than usual, speech.
nie habitual nation of anger. Naru- Stretching words,
emotional sheniya syntactic transition to a whisper.
expressive order pre- The appearance of pauses, in-
lies. Sudden tones of displeasure
stops in speech, "suppressed-
Features Enthusiasm Poor self-contact Striving for Ogre
behavior (performing a role. Vividly expressing contacts
tasks, various bravado, group Apathy, drowsiness,
talking with boss, self-confident - indifference
colleague), ness
Perception (this word means "perception" in Latin) is a cognitive process of active direct display by a person of various objects, phenomena, events and situations. If such knowledge is aimed at social facilities and effects, this phenomenon is called social perception. Various mechanisms of social perception can be observed daily in everyday life. Description Mentions of such a psychological phenomenon as perception met even in the ancient world. A great contribution to the development of this concept was made by philosophers, physicists, physiologists and even artists. But the greatest value is attached to this concept in psychology. Perception is the most important mental function of cognition, manifested in the form complex process receiving and transforming sensory information. Thanks to perception, the individual makes up an integral image of the object that affects the analyzers. In other words, perception is a form of sensory display. This phenomenon includes such characteristics as the identification of individual features, the correct selection of information, the formation and accuracy of a sensory image. Perception is always associated with attention, logical thinking, memory. It always depends on motivation and has a certain emotional coloring. The properties of any kind of perception include structure, objectivity, apperception, contextuality and meaningfulness. The study of this phenomenon is intensively carried out not only by representatives of various branches of psychology, but also by physiologists, cybernetics, and other scientists. In their differential studies, they widely use methods such as experiment, modeling, observation, and empirical analysis. The understanding of what the functions, structure, and mechanisms of social perception represent is not only common to psychology, but also practical value. This phenomenon plays an important role in the creation information systems, in artistic design, in sports, teaching and many other areas of human activity. Factors Perceptual factors are both internal and external. To external factors include intensity, size, novelty, contrast, repetition, movement, and recognizability. Internal factors include: Interaction with society through perception Another concept widely used in psychology and related sciences is such a variety of our perception as social perception. This is the name given to the evaluation and understanding by a person of other people and himself, as well as other social objects. Such objects may include various groups, social communities. This term appeared in 1947, and was introduced by psychologist D. Bruner. The appearance of this concept in psychology allowed scientists to look at the tasks and problems of human perception in a completely different way. People are social beings. Throughout life, any person contacts with other people a huge number of times, forming a variety of interpersonal relationships. Separate groups of people also form close bonds. Therefore, each person is the subject of a huge number of very different relationships. A positive or negative attitude towards other people directly depends on our perception, as well as on how we evaluate our communication partners. Usually, during communication, we first evaluate the appearance, and then the behavior of the partner. As a result of this assessment, a certain attitude is formed in us, preliminary assumptions are made about the psychological qualities of the interlocutor. Social perception can manifest itself in several forms. So, in most cases, social perception is called the perception by the person himself. Any individual perceives himself, as well as his or someone else's grouping. There is also perception by group members. This includes perception within the boundaries of one's community or members of a foreign group. The third type of social perception is group perception. The group can perceive both its own person and members of a foreign community. The last type of social perception considers the perception of one group of another group. The very process of such perception can be represented as an evaluation activity. We evaluate the psychological characteristics of a person, his appearance, actions and deeds. As a result, we form a certain opinion about the observed, form a clear idea of ​​its possible behavioral reactions. Mechanisms Perception is always a process of predicting the feelings and actions of people around. For a complete understanding of this process, knowledge of the features of the functioning of its mechanisms is required. The mechanisms of social perception are shown in the following table: Name Definition Examples Stereotyping A persistent image or idea of ​​people, phenomena, which is characteristic of all representatives of one social group Many believe that the Germans are terrible pedants, the military are straightforward, and beautiful people are often narcissistic. Identification Intuitive identification and cognition of a person or group in situations of direct or indirect communication. In this case, there is a comparison or comparison of the internal states of the partners People make assumptions about the state of the psyche of a partner, trying to mentally become him empathy Emotional empathy with others, the ability to understand another person through the provision of emotional support and getting used to his experiences This mechanism is considered necessary condition for the successful work of psychotherapists, doctors and teachers Reflection Self-knowledge through interaction with another person. It becomes possible due to the ability of the individual to imagine how the communication partner sees him. Imagine a dialogue between hypothetical Sasha and Petya. At least 6 "roles" participate in such communication: Sasha, as he is; Sasha, as he sees himself; Sasha as Petya sees him. And these same roles from Petya attraction Knowledge of another person, based on a persistent positive feeling. Thanks to attraction, people not only learn to understand a communication partner, but also form rich emotional relationships. Psychologists distinguish such types of this perceptual mechanism: love, sympathy and friendship. Causal attribution This is the process of predicting the actions and feelings of the people around. Without understanding something, a person begins to attribute his behavior, Not understanding something, a person begins to attribute his behavior, feelings, personality traits, motives to other people. The peculiarity of interpersonal cognition is that it takes into account not only a variety of physical features, but also behavioral features. If the subject of such perception actively participates in communication, then he establishes a coordinated interaction with the partner. Therefore, social perception is highly dependent on the motives, emotions, opinions, prejudices, attitudes and preferences of both partners. In social perception, there is necessarily also a subjective evaluation of another person. Does our perception depend on society? In interpersonal perception, there are various gender, class, age, professional, and individual differences. It is known that young children perceive a person by appearance, paying special attention to his clothes, as well as to the presence of special paraphernalia. Students also first rate teachers on their appearance, but teachers perceive students by their inner qualities. Similar differences are found between leaders and subordinates. Professional affiliation is also important for perception. For example, teachers perceive people by their ability to conduct a conversation, but, say, a coach pays attention to a person’s anatomy, as well as how he moves. Social perception is highly dependent on the previous assessment of our object of perception. In an interesting experiment, the teaching grades of 2 groups of students were recorded. The first group consisted of "favorite", and the second - of "unloved" students. Moreover, the “favorite” children deliberately made mistakes when completing the task, while the “unloved” children solved it correctly. However, the teacher, despite this, positively assessed the "favorite" and negatively - "unloved" children. The attribution of any characteristics is always carried out according to this model: negative actions are attributed to people with a negative characteristic, and good actions are attributed to positive people. First impression Psychologists have found out which factors make the strongest impression in the process of the emergence of social perception. It turned out that usually people pay attention first to the hairstyle, then to the eyes, and then to the facial expression of a stranger. Therefore, if you smile cordially at your interlocutors when meeting, they will perceive you in a friendly way and will be more positively disposed. There are 3 main factors influencing how the first opinion of each person is formed: they are attitude, attractiveness and superiority. “Superiority” is observed when a person who is superior in some way to a particular person is rated much higher in terms of other characteristics. There is a global revision of the assessed personality. Moreover, this factor is most strongly influenced by the uncertain behavior of the observer. Therefore, in extreme almost all people are able to trust those whom they would not have come close to before. "Attractiveness" explains the features of perception for a partner who is attractive in terms of his external data. The error of perception here is that the externally attractive personality is often greatly overestimated by the surrounding people in terms of its social and psychological properties. “Attitude” considers the perception of a partner depending on our attitude towards him. The perceptual error in this case is that we tend to overestimate those who treat us well or share our opinion. How to develop perceptual skills D. Carnegie believes that mutual strong sympathy and effective friendly communication arise due to an ordinary smile. Therefore, for the development of perceptual skills, he suggests, first of all, to learn how to smile correctly. To do this, you need to perform daily exercises specially developed by this psychologist in front of the mirror. Facial expressions give us real information about a person's experiences, so by learning to control our facial expressions, we improve our social perception skills. To learn to distinguish between emotional manifestations and develop social perception skills, you can also use the Ekman technique. This method consists in selecting 3 zones on the human face (nose with the area around it, forehead with eyes, mouth with chin). The manifestation of 6 leading emotional states (they include joy, anger, surprise, fear, disgust and sadness) is noted in these zones, which allows each person to recognize and decipher the mimic manifestations of another person. This perceptual technique has become widespread not only in ordinary situations of communication, but also in the psychotherapeutic practice of interaction with pathological personalities. So, perception is the most complex mechanism psychological interaction person and the object they perceive. This interaction occurs under the influence of a huge number of factors. The characteristics of perception are age features, life experience of a person, specific effects, as well as a variety of personal properties. Practical pedagogical activity is only half built on rational technology. The other half of it is art. Pedagogical abilities - the quality of the individual. The main groups of abilities are distinguished: * Organizational - the ability of the teacher to rally students, keep them busy, share responsibilities, plan work, take stock. * Didactic - the ability to select and prepare educational material, visibility, equipment; accessible, clear and consistent presentation of educational material; stimulate the development of cognitive interests. * Perceptual - the ability to penetrate into the spiritual world of the educated, to objectively assess their emotional state, to identify the characteristics of the psyche. *Suggestive abilities consist in the emotional and volitional influence on the trainees. *Research - the ability to know and objectively evaluate pedagogical situations. * Scientific and cognitive - the ability to assimilate new scientific knowledge in the chosen field. Download: Preview: "Perceptual pedagogical abilities Helping to ensure the success of the lesson" Practical pedagogical activity is only half built on rational technology. The other half of it is art. Pedagogical abilities - the quality of the individual. The main groups of abilities are distinguished: * Organizational - the ability of the teacher to rally students, keep them busy, share responsibilities, plan work, take stock. * Didactic - the ability to select and prepare educational material, visibility, equipment; accessible, clear and consistent presentation of educational material; stimulate the development of cognitive interests. * Perceptual - the ability to penetrate into the spiritual world of the educated, to objectively assess their emotional state, to identify the characteristics of the psyche. *Suggestive abilities consist in the emotional and volitional influence on the trainees. *Research - the ability to know and objectively evaluate pedagogical situations. * Scientific and cognitive - the ability to assimilate new scientific knowledge in the chosen field. Are all abilities equally important in the practical activities of a teacher? It turns out not. Leading abilities are: *pedagogical vigilance *didactic * organizational. The remaining abilities can be attributed to auxiliary, accompanying. Let us dwell on one group of pedagogical abilities - perceptual abilities - the ability to identify the characteristics of the student's psyche. Some theorists suggest that people's behavior - both normal and abnormal - is marked by: 1.family environment 2.society 3.culture. We are all part of the social framework of family, friends, acquaintances and even strangers; certain types of relationships with others in which we are involved can reinforce deviations in behavior and even become the cause of their occurrence. Pedagogical activity is a specific activity, and its main feature is that the main subject of labor here is the personality of another person. At the center of this activity is still the emerging personality. Therefore, this person is especially sensitive to various social influences, especially vulnerable and less stable. Obtaining adequate knowledge of the student's personality is also important from another point of view. The study of the student's personality seems necessary as a condition and method for providing feedback in the pedagogical process. Psychodiagnostics of personality can help the teacher in solving most pedagogical problems. There is a whole package of tests that determine the type of a person's character. The concept of "accentuation" was first introduced by the German psychiatrist and psychologist Leonhard. In our country, another classification of accentuations has become widespread, which was proposed by the famous child psychiatrist, Professor Andrei Evgenievich Lichko. Hyperthymic type. Elevation of mood, a thirst for novelty in everything - this determines all behavior. The most important feature of hyperthyms is their great mobility, activity, tendency to mischief, restlessness, sociability, talkativeness. All this in the educational process manifests itself in the form of restlessness and indiscipline. Such behavior of hyperthyms very often causes displeasure and a sharp reaction from teachers. The first signs of this type are already visible in primary school. A high degree of activity is combined with a constant desire for leadership. Great activity is combined with promiscuity in the choice of acquaintances. They are easily mastered in an unfamiliar environment, but they do not tolerate loneliness, strict discipline, monotonous work that requires petty accuracy, forced idleness. They tend to overestimate their capabilities and overly optimistic plans for the future. The desire of others to suppress their activity often leads to violent, but short outbursts of irritation. Particular attention should be paid to maintaining a distance sufficient for productive interaction. You can’t use cruelty, you need to interest (throw new ideas) cycloid type. It is characterized by a constant change of mood, not depending on the person himself, nor on the circumstances. The mood alternates with periods of mild depression with periods of hyperactivity for 10-15 days. This type of character occurs three times more often in girls than in boys. In the subdepressive phase, working capacity drops, interest in everything is lost, the teenager becomes a homebody, avoids companies. Failures and even minor troubles are hard to experience. Serious complaints, especially those that humiliate self-esteem, can lead to thoughts about their own inferiority, uselessness. Between phases, there is often a fairly long period of "harmonious" behavior. The first signs of this type are about 12 years old. Emotionally labile type. The leading radical of this type is emotional lability. Changes in mood are frequent, but are associated with small external stimuli, with various life situations. Not aspiring to leadership. He prefers to be in a circle of people who treat him well, amorous. In labile adolescents, feelings and affections are sincere and deep, especially to those persons who themselves show love, attention and care. Great need for empathy. Subtly feel the attitude of others around them, even with superficial contact. Difficulty experiencing loss or emotional rejection from significant persons. Astheno-neurotic type. The main features are increased fatigue, irritability. Slow workability, short peak and fast decay. Fatigue usually manifests itself during mental activities and in an environment of competition, rivalry. With fatigue, affective outbursts occur for an insignificant reason (these outbursts are physiological). They do not claim leadership, are easily subordinated, and are often influenced by others. Begins to appear at 9-11 years of age. Present throughout life. Regardless of the level of intelligence, they study average. psychasthenic type. The main features are indecisiveness, anxious suspiciousness (in the form of fears for the future of oneself and one's loved ones) are prone to introspection. Character traits are found already in elementary school. Responsibility for oneself, and especially for others, can be the most difficult task. The type is consolidated at the age of 12-14 years, before that it is easy to have doubts. He does not pretend to leadership, does not fall under the influence, communicates in a circle of his own kind. They tend to study something in depth, independent, indecisive. Have the right self-esteem. Recommendations for teachers - do not put them in a position of choice (it is impossible to teach), give only specific tasks. Use the propensity for deep learning, make him a think tank - let him study something and tell others. sensitive type. Determined by timidity, vulnerability, indecision. Has a high level of demands on himself. Appears at 10-12-13 years old, some signs even earlier. They are selective in communication, if they make friends, they are loyal to friendship, attached to relatives, to parents. They see many shortcomings in themselves, especially in the field of strong-willed qualities. Often there is dissatisfaction with one's physical "I" ("body image"). Reclusion, timidity and shyness are especially evident among strangers and in an unusual environment. Even the most superficial contacts are difficult with strangers, but with those to whom they are accustomed, they are quite sociable. Extreme difficulties are caused by situations of negative evaluation or accusation. Responsible, learn regardless of the level of intelligence, good. They prefer to live in illusions, in castles in the air. Sensitives have a hard time with the divorce of their parents. Considered as a betrayal. Recommendations for teachers should not be abruptly pulled out of the familiar environment, even if she is going to go to college, it is desirable that her mother also goes. An individual approach is needed. With the sensitive type, you have to be sincere. The most difficult type. Schizoid type. The main features are isolation and lack of sensitivity in the process of communication, inability and unwillingness to communicate, inability to understand other people's experiences, desire and thoughts of a partner. He doesn't care what's around him. Often sloppy, natural behavior is to read in a noisy cheerful company. It is difficult, abstrusely formulate their conclusions, do not feel the pain of others and do not require attention to themselves. They have bizarre hobbies. Character traits appear at the age of 10-12. epileptoid type. The main feature is a tendency to states of an angry-dreary mood, with constantly growing irritation and the search for an object on which to vent evil. Affective explosiveness is characteristic. These explosions are not only strong, but also long lasting. Love is almost always tinged with jealousy. An irrepressible desire for leadership, they allow a hierarchy of power, the authorities achieve it by any means. They adapt well to the conditions of a strict disciplinary regime, where they strive to seize a position that gives power over other teenagers by high ostentatious diligence in front of their superiors. Peculiar accuracy, strict adherence to rules (sometimes to the detriment of business) hysterical type. The desire to stand out, to be bright, the thirst for attention to yourself. The first signs appear quite early, even in kindergarten. Learn the best or the worst. They can be false, unusual hobbies (no one else has one). A tendency to posturing, theatricality of experiences is characteristic. A low capacity for hard work is combined with a high demand for future profession. Among their peers, they claim superiority or an exclusive position. unstable type. Indefatigable thirst for pleasure with unwillingness to work, superficiality of hobbies. Signs of this type are visible as early as 8-10 years. They study badly, skip. Easily obey, are under the influence of the epileptoid type. Alcoholism quickly appears at the age of 15-16 (with early alcoholization). With strict and continuous control, they reluctantly obey, but always look for an opportunity to shirk from any work. Weak volitional component of personality. They are indifferent to their future, do not make plans, live in the present. Neglect quickly has a detrimental effect. Conformal type. The main feature is conformity: a pronounced desire to be "like everyone else." This desire extends to everything - from the desire to dress like everyone else, to a strong dependence on the environment, judgments, attitudes and behavior. In a "good" environment, they study well, try and work, in a "bad" environment, they quickly learn its customs, habits, and behavior. They work most successfully when personal initiative is not required. Summarizing all that has been said, it can obviously be concluded that accentuation is not a pathology, but an extreme version of the norm. Used Books: 1. Podlasy I.P. "Pedagogy", textbook part 1. 2. Rean A.A. "Psychology of the Study of Personality". 3. Rean A.A. "Practical psychodiagnostics of personality". 4. Khjell A., Ziegler D. "Personality Theories". "Sensation and perception, - wrote B. G. Ananiev, - it would be most correct to consider as two different moments, two different stages of a single process of sensory cognition" 1 . However, each sensation can also exist as an independent form of reflection, so we will consider these cognitive processes as independent ones. Perception is a reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses. Different types of perception are also classified according to several parameters. The most common of them are two: according to the predominant role of one or another analyzer in the displayed reality and according to the forms of existence of matter. According to the first parameter, visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory perceptions are distinguished. Depending on the form of existence of matter, the perception of time is singled out as a reflection of the objective temporal duration, the speed of flow and the sequence of phenomena of reality; perception of movement as a reflection of a change in the position of an object in space; perception of space, including the perception of the shape of an object, its size (length), depth and distance from the subject, as well as the direction in which the object of perception is located. The perception of space is a "complex intermodal association" 1 , and the extent and direction, as the most general parameters of space, are uniquely reflected in the activity of each analyzer. It should be noted that one of the essential features of perception is the comparison, comparison of perceptual images. In this regard, an important type of perception of space is considered to be an eye, defined as "the ability to compare the spatial magnitudes, directions and distance of an object from the observer, which develops as a result of experience" 2 and is divided into linear, planar and three-dimensional (deep, volumetric). Thus, almost all types of perception under consideration concern only the features of reflection of objects external to the subject of perception. In this regard, the results of a study of visual and haptic (tactile) perception obtained by some foreign scientists are of particular interest. In particular, in the studies of J. Gibson, it was found that a person is able to see not only the space around him, but also his own position and movement. This extraction of information about oneself from the optical flow J. Gibson called visual proprioception 3 . Similar data were obtained in the field of touch, which allowed W. Neisser to make an important, in our opinion, conclusion: "Any perceptual activity provides information both about the perceiving and perceived environment, about the "I" and about the world" 2 . The following are distinguished as the leading properties of perception by most authors: objectivity, expressed in the relation of a visual image of perception to certain objects of the external world; constancy - the ability of the perceptual system to maintain the relative constancy of the shape, size and color of objects under changing perceptual conditions within certain limits, to compensate for these changes; integrity - a property that allows you to get a holistic image of an object in all its diversity and the ratio of its properties; meaningfulness - the interpretation of images that arise as a result of perception, in accordance with the knowledge of the subject, his past experience, giving them a certain semantic meaning; generalization - a reflection of single objects as a special manifestation of the general, representing a certain class of objects that are homogeneous with data on some basis; selectivity - the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others, revealing the activity of human perception. The definitions and characteristics of the listed properties, which are inherent to one degree or another in almost all cognitive mental processes, characterize the essence of the process of perception. Since one of the main tasks of our work was to identify the properties of mental processes (and their individual types) that characterize their productivity, we paid special attention in the analysis of the literature to the study of individual differences in the process of perception and the parameters that determine these differences. These features include the following: Volume of perception - the number of objects that a person can perceive during one fixation; accuracy - the correspondence of the resulting image to the features of the perceived object; completeness - the degree of such compliance; speed - the time required for an adequate perception of an object or phenomenon; emotional coloration. 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