COURSE WORK
in the discipline "Pedagogy of the Higher Technical School (Business Rhetoric at the Technical University)"
on the topic "Conflicts in business
communication"
Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ........... 3
1. Theoretical basis business communication ................................................................ ..... 4
1.1. General concepts of business communication .................................................... ............ 4
1.2. Problems and forms of business communication .............................................. ...... 6
1.3. The need for knowledge of business communication .............................................. 13
2. Conflicts as an element of business communication .............................................. ...... 24
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ..... 29
Bibliographic list .................................................................. .............................. thirty
The human essence is determined only in communion, in the unity of man with man, in unity based on the reality of the difference between I and You.
L. Feuerbach
In the context of Russia's transition to a market economy, a significant part of the population is increasingly involved in economic activity. Many people have appeared whose main profession has become entrepreneurship, which allows them to expand their Creative skills and business qualities.
However, these abilities and qualities, as the practice of modern Russian business shows, give the greatest return only with the ability to conduct a business conversation - one of the most important conditions for commercial success.
"What is business communication?" - sometimes many have heard this phrase, but not every one of us understands what it means.
Business communication is a complex multifaceted process of developing contacts between people in the official sphere. Its participants act in official statuses and are focused on achieving the goal, specific tasks. A specific feature of this process is regulation, i.e., obedience to established restrictions, which are determined by national and cultural traditions, professional ethical principles.
The ability to behave with people during a conversation is one of the key factors that determine your chances of success in business, office or entrepreneurial activities. The success of a person in his affairs, even in the technical field or the scientific field, only fifteen percent depends on his professional knowledge and eighty-five percent on his ability to communicate with the people he works with.
Communication is characteristic of all higher living beings, but at the human level it acquires the most perfect forms, becomes conscious and mediated, that is, speech. There is not even the shortest period of time in a person's life when he would be outside this process of vital activity, outside interaction with other objects of society. Business communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint productive activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity, informative accompaniment to it. Its content is what people do, not the problems that affect them. inner world, in contrast to personal communication between close people, friends, relatives.
Means of the communication process:
Components of the communication process:
message;
talk;
point of view;
compliment.
Business communication is a process in which business information and work experience are exchanged, involving the achievement of a certain result in joint work, the solution of a specific problem or the implementation of a specific goal. The specificity of this process is the moment of regulation, that is, the obedience to the established restrictions, which are determined by the national and cultural traditions adopted in the given territory, professional ethical principles adopted in this professional circle of people. Business communication is conditionally divided into direct (direct contact) and indirect (when during communication there is a certain spatio-temporal distance, that is, letters, telephone conversations, business notes, etc.).
Direct communication has greater effectiveness, the power of emotional impact and suggestion, while indirect communication does not have such a strong result, some socio-psychological mechanisms directly operate in it. In general, business communication differs from informal communication in that its process sets specific tasks and specific goals that require a certain resolution, which does not allow us to stop the process of negotiations with a partner or partners in negotiations at any time (at least without certain losses in obtaining information for both parties). In an ordinary friendly one, questions such as specific tasks and goals are most often not raised, so such communication can be stopped (at the request of both parties) at any time without fear of losing the opportunity to restore the communication process again.
Types of business communication:
negotiation;
meetings;
visits;
public performance.
Business communication as a process involves establishing contact between participants, exchanging certain information to build joint activities, establishing cooperation, etc. In order for communication as a process to occur without problems, it must go through the following stages:
establishing contact;
orientation in the situation of communication;
discussion of the task;
search for a solution to the problem;
end of contact.
Service contacts are built on a partnership basis, proceeding from mutual needs, from the interests of a common cause. Undoubtedly, such communication increases labor and creative activity, is an important factor in a successful business.
The exchange of information between people, the establishment of communication links is a complex and responsible process. This is not only a way of communication or a form of communication (transport communications, radio, television, mail, telegraph, Internet), but also communication - a specific form of interaction between people in the process of their labor and social activities. Communication is defined as the process of transmitting and receiving informational, emotional or intellectual content. Optimization of the forms of social communications is aimed at achieving mutual understanding between people, identifying common interests, and a more complete exchange of information. Human communication determines the moral climate of the team, its psychological stability, the dynamics of its cohesion or disunity, the interaction between I and You. The life of a big city contributes to the intensity of contacts, but also to the reduction of traditional areas of communication. Only 9% of contacts are established on the basis of neighborhood, while at work and school more than 38%.
A man came up to you and said, "Hello." All. Enough. Your super-powerful internal computer, with amazing speed, meticulousness and scrupulousness in hundreds of parameters, instantly assessed this person and prepared you for a complex and responsible act of communication. Not only Sherlock Holmes, but also any professional, specialist in the delicate art of management can tell a lot of interesting things about a person he has just seen - about his culture, profession, education, habits, about his strengths, weaknesses and vices. These assessments, which are fundamental for establishing contacts with a partner, will, of course, be refined later, sometimes even very significantly, but overall strategy communication has already been developed and it is very important not to make mistakes in your assessments, to ensure the fullest possible intellectual and emotional understanding.
The logical methods by which a person forms his conclusions can be divided into inductive (from the particular to the general) and deductive (from the general to the particular, to a specific conclusion). Using any of these methods, it is possible to obtain an estimate of the phenomenon under study with varying accuracy and probability and make the necessary decision. Methods of induction allow you to generalize information, compare individual facts, discard atypical ones and determine the similarity, the general trend in the development of the process under study. The mathematical apparatus of induction is the numerous methods of mathematical statistics (least squares, correlations, etc.) and probability theory - the science of massive random events. The researcher is not interested in individual, but in the most general properties are equivalent to each other. Apparatus of modern mathematical modeling relies on induction methods. Opinion polling is a typical example of the use of induction methods to determine the general trend of the phenomenon under study. Deduction, i.e. a method of finding a solution from the general to the particular, a simpler, shortest way to form a conclusion. The logical system of deduction, based on the concept of syllogism, was formulated by Aristotle and consists of three judgments: two premises and a conclusion. The rigor and consistency of syllogistics are used in the methods of mathematical logic. The deduction method can be illustrated with an example: "The State Duma of Russia consists of honest people's representatives. Ivanov is a dishonest person. Therefore, he will not be elected to the State Duma." Well, let's believe in the infallibility of this syllogism...
There is, perhaps, nothing more difficult than the art of dialogue. The assessment of a person in society and objective self-assessment (which is especially difficult!) most often depend on where, how and what was said, although the meaning of an act, act, action is immeasurably more important. Dialogue, in addition to the exchange of information and emotions, contributes to socio-psychological adaptation, forms an attitude towards oneself and towards society. In the process of communication, the ability to listen, prove, resolve a conflict, create a trusting and meaningful atmosphere during a conversation is developed. Possession of all the possibilities and features of the dialogue, communication technology is an important sign of professionalism. A specialist in the science and art of management must:
be able to formulate goals and objectives of the dialogue;
master all forms of business communication: conversation, dispute, controversy, discussion, debate, dispute, business meeting, round table, team business game, negotiations, auctions;
have the skill to prove and substantiate, clearly argue and unobtrusively convince, criticize and refute, reach agreements, compromises, correct the opponent's behavior and his assessments;
own speech and office etiquette and be able to use it.
The art of management focuses on speech (verbal) communication and the ability to organize it in various forms, using in each case its own special methods and procedures.
Conversation. Perhaps a conversation is one of the most common forms of communication between people, and each case has its own specifics, a certain methodology, rules for implementation. The conversation can take place between partners equal in their social and intellectual level, between a boss and a subordinate, a man and a woman, a teacher and a student, an adult and a child. And each time, in each specific case, there is a style, script and drama, proven by all the experience of mankind. Even the most "empty, secular" conversation should have a clear goal - this general rule for any form of communication. Obviously, the goal of a casual, unplanned conversation can be just a pleasant, easy dialogue, when each of the interlocutors tries to be a polite, courteous interlocutor and the topic of their casual conversation should be interesting for each of them. It is especially important to observe this simple rule in a conversation with a woman. Professionalism, good education, a high level of intelligence, knowledge of the rules of etiquette make it possible to avoid vulgarity, a stereotype in the choice of topics and in the manner of conducting a conversation. A sad impression is made by a home-grown "secular lion" who starts a conversation with a well-aimed remark: "The weather is fine today, isn't it?"
A special art and tact require a conversation between a senior and a junior, and few of their masters can avoid the temptation to speak in a condescending mentoring tone, teach and instruct, switch to a one-sided "you", raise their voice and, enjoying the opponent's defenselessness, exercise wit and sarcasm. The tone of the order is appropriate only in extreme situations; a request or instruction is more effective than an order. The success of a business conversation largely depends on the knowledge of the mental and intellectual characteristics of the interlocutor, his problems and desires. Usually the interlocutor reacts to the word emotionally - facial expressions, gestures, intonation, facial expressions allow you to determine his reaction to what was said and make the necessary adjustments. You should never be absolutely sure of the strength of your argument and, even more dangerous, underestimate the intelligence and professionalism of your opponent. Obsession, immoderate pathos, familiarity, hidden threats, blackmail usually have the opposite effect, cause overt or covert opposition.
Business conversation. Usually, a conversation between business partners occurs allegedly by chance, along the way, as a reaction to the current situation, sometimes even to a provoked incident. The purpose of a business conversation is to reach an agreement based on the exchange of information, determine positions or obtain additional information on the merits of the issue. But this conversation is always preceded by a long period of reflection, studying the situation, the position of the opponent, and the desire to discuss the problem with him does not appear spontaneously. A specialist conducting a business conversation always tries to prepare the interlocutor for communication, remembering the importance of creating an atmosphere of trust, sympathy (what psychologists call attraction), and starts a conversation with general provisions which cannot cause negative reactions in the interlocutor. It is important to emphasize again that any business communication should have a clear purpose, even better if this purpose is formulated in such a way that it becomes common for both parties. The reasonableness of the decision to be made largely depends on an objective statement of the strengths and weaknesses of one's position, as well as the opinions of other participants in the conversation. Knowing or finding out the differences in the understanding of the goal (or the paths leading to it) and emphasizing respect for the opponent's right to have his own opinion, various options for reaching a parity agreement are considered. If several people take part in a conversation, a meeting, then it is more reasonable to first listen to the opinion of the one who occupies a lower official position, i.e. give the floor in the reverse order of the official status of the meeting participants.
Irreparable damage to business communication will be inflicted if the solution of the problem under discussion depends not on objective criteria, but on sympathy or antipathy, on interpersonal relations from the standpoint of personal benefits and ambitions, when in fact "It is not the problem that is condemned, but its carrier. A business conversation will only be constructive when the subject of discussion is the precedent under study, and not the relationship to the partner.Even Roman law, considering aspects of the objectivity of solving the problem, raised the question cui prodest - who benefits? business communication.Dialogue will be fruitful if Feedback with an opponent, his reactions will be under constant benevolent and tactful control. It is wiser to share your observations, being wary of peremptory assessments, conclusions and final conclusions. Special tact should be shown if it is necessary to give advice, plan joint actions. But pragmatically minded experts believe that conversation is effective if it is a means of obtaining, rather than issuing information.
Dispute. "Truth is born in a dispute" - is it so? It is difficult to recall a case where, as a result of controversy during the election campaign, disputes between football fans, religious fanatics, or, finally, family battles, this very truth came to light. After all, most often the purpose of the dispute is not to find a solution to the controversial problem, but to assert, defend one's own, undoubtedly, the only correct opinion on this issue. The methods of argumentation, the establishment of any rules and procedures are considered completely superfluous by the arguing, and the logic of the dispute leads to a conflict, to an indiscriminate war of opinions, because it is known that a person believes in what he wants to believe.
Each new argument in the dispute is aimed at denying the argument of the opponent, sometimes the controversial thesis itself is forgotten in the heat of controversy, new and new irreconcilable positions and nuances appear. The dispute is characterized by any method of refutation, negation of the opponent's theses, conflict and antagonism of opinions, but not the search for a compromise. And if one of the arguing, more prepared or louder, finally takes possession of the battlefield of the dispute, then the disgraced one, having exhausted all his arguments and hoarse in the heat of battle, in the end still remains with his opinion, but at the same time acquiring a staunch dislike for the enemy.
And yet, despite the irreconcilability of the dispute and the importance of the upheld principle, a cultured, educated and experienced person must try not to overstep the boundaries of an acceptable tone, not offend a partner and not make an enemy in his face. A noble person will not mercilessly shame, "drive into a corner" an opponent who is sick or has suffered mental trauma, and will spare his pride. By the way, such delicacy often leads to a complex internal conflict: the desire to win effectively with the use of sharp and strong arguments struggles with the fear of causing irreparable damage to the opponent's reputation and one's relationship with him. But the rejection of a clear and quick victory in the dispute, the rigid use of one's undoubtedly winning position gives immeasurably more - the preservation of self-esteem.
Speaking about the ethics of the dispute, it is appropriate to recall the recommendations of Aristotle ("Topeka"), who argued that one can argue only with those who listen to the arguments of the opponent, rely on arguments, and not on maxims, and avoid a dispute if the opponent is so stupid that instead of arguments will have to listen to such insulting absurdities that in the end you will be ashamed of your participation in this squabble.
Later, exploring the methods of the art of management, we will return to the problem of the dispute again and consider specific methods of conducting it (the Socrates method, the three-round method, etc.) and think about when it is more reasonable to avoid the dispute and when, alas, it is impossible to do so. . And if it is necessary to argue, then since the time of ancient rhetoric, some practical advice: active position (preferably in a correct, loyal form), in which the opponent is forced to justify himself, give explanations and answer questions; each stage of the dispute should (as in a chess game) bring tactical advantages, strengthen and seize the initiative - a sharp attack on a weak thesis or bringing this thesis to absurdity, etc.; addressing a statement not to an active participant in the dispute, but to the informal leader of the opposite side, which can lead to a micro-conflict in the opponent's camp; raising the tone of the dispute to a certain limit, shifting emphasis in assessing the position of the opponent, maneuver, moving from a weak position to another, well-reasoned element of the problem, and, finally, with equal positions, the ability to take the first step towards an agreement (in chess terminology - to offer a draw) and worthy of getting out of the dispute.
It is difficult to maintain objectivity in a dispute, to understand the point of view of the opponent. The reason for this is most often the belief in the infallibility of one's position, in the undoubted nobility of one's goals and thoughts. This illusion implies the doubtful moral principles of the enemy, his selfishness and uncleanliness. And confidence in one's own nobility allows one to conduct this jousting tournament with a clear conscience and an open visor until the enemy is completely disgraced. Moreover, the shortcomings and mistakes of the opponent are so obvious ("a straw in the eye of another") that some incorrectness of one's behavior is quite justified.
Not a single person from the field of business and entrepreneurship can currently avoid the process of communicating with their own personnel of their company and trading partners, with representatives of the authorities, employees of legal or judicial authorities, with agents or contractors, which requires certain skills and knowledge from the field of business psychology. communication.
The ability to behave correctly and adequately during business communication is one of the main components of success. business man and leader. The ability to conduct this process without conflict and productively is one of the most necessary qualities for those who want to be successful in business. That is, you must have knowledge of areas such as ethics and etiquette, which will allow you to get out of any negotiations and business contacts with a "face".
It is also necessary to be able to manage the process, influencing people in such a way that there is no tension or conflict situation. Public life is unthinkable without a clash of ideas, life positions, goals of both individuals and small and large groups, other communities. In the workplace, there are often discrepancies and contradictions of various parties, often developing into industrial conflicts.
Business lives on decision-making and interaction between people. From the strategic decisions of the board of directors to the day-to-day decisions of managers and employees, the well-being of any organization depends on the quality of communication and decision-making. As a manager, you have specific responsibilities, and your responsibilities depend on what specific business and personal goals you achieve.
As the work environment becomes less structured and a person is judged not by position in the organization, but by contribution to the work, the command-and-control style of leadership quickly becomes unnecessary. The time is almost gone when a manager could use his position to enforce obedience to his instructions. These days, obedience is a rusty tool of government - best left to law enforcement agencies. Fortunately, subordination is rapidly being replaced by more humane strategies of participation and engagement. Along with these changes in leadership style, methods of influence also change.
The science of influencing others has gone through two stages in its development; the first is submission to authority, the second is the skills of perseverance. In order for impact in today's organizations to be congruent with empowerment-style management, a third step is now needed, a more subtle approach offered by NLP.
To be part of an organization and not to influence its work is to submit to the ideas of others. These are people of the “I agree” type, obedient, passive and compliant. Business today needs less people"I agree" and more creative people who are willing to take risks, try new approaches, and expand the range of possibilities. This requires an inquisitive mind, enthusiasm for new changes, and the ability to organize others in accordance with their thinking.
Still, curiosity and enthusiasm alone is not enough if you can't generate interest in it from other people in the organization. A great idea like selling sliced bread is useless if you can't convince others to buy it. Galileo was a brilliant scientist, and thanks to his curious mind, he discovered that contrary to the views of the 17th century Catholic Church, the Earth is not at the center of the universe as a stationary mass. Unfortunately, Galileo did not have the ability to influence his contemporaries and his published Dialogue Concerning the Two Systems of the World led to him being placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.
To influence another person, respect for his model of the world is necessary. It also requires honesty, patience and understanding. Without these qualities, your attempts to influence others may be perceived as manipulative, and then your proposals may hit a blank wall. Here we return again to intention and purpose. If you have a worthwhile goal with well-formed desired outcomes, and if your intent is focused on business benefits rather than tactical benefits, then you have the necessary guidelines to impact with respect.
Confidence
People allow themselves to be influenced by the people they trust. The reverse is also true. Have you ever made a big purchase from someone you didn't trust? I doubt. In fact, most people would rather buy a product that doesn't meet their needs from someone they trust than buy a perfect product from someone they don't trust.
Honesty of purpose and intention will be rewarded with trust, and yet that alone is not enough. There is one ability that you can develop; the ability, which is as fundamental and important as trust, is to "like". It is possible to trust someone and dislike them, although trust and liking are usually closely related. Do you have friends you don't trust, will they return what they borrowed? If a person trusts you and likes you, the basic prerequisites for influence have been created.
Looks like me - I like you
A good friend of mine is very good at imitating the person or group he is interacting with. I've seen him discuss strategy with company presidents, gossip with a cleaner, tell dirty jokes to engineers, and talk to a Chinese chef about the culinary intricacies of Cantonese delicacies. Like a chameleon that changes color to blend in with its surroundings, it has the behavioral flexibility to blend in with whoever it interacts with.
People like those who look like them, and they are wary of those who do not look like them. The more you look like someone, the better you will understand that person's model of the world. This is the principle on which people base their relationships and social activities - it is deeply rooted in our psyche. Affection and trust can be left to chance, or one can be so flexible in behavior that one can generate likeness and trust with intent and purpose.
Rapport (mutual understanding)
Building rapport with the people in your organization is one of the most productive types of work you can do. Good rapport with people makes things a lot easier. If one of your desired outcomes requires the influence of a certain person, then nothing is more result-oriented than building rapport with that person, even if it means doing something out of the ordinary. Like trust and affection, rapport can also be created intentionally.
Yet rapport is much more than earning trust and good relationship; rapport means being like others. Rapport is associated with similarity, and for such flexibility, to be the same as others, you need the qualities of a chameleon - to be able to be like anyone in order to build rapport. If you encounter resistance in any interaction, this is a sign of a lack of rapport. Before continuing the story of constituent parts rapport, I will describe to you a few key skills that you need to master.
sensory information
In your desired outcome, there are always perceived signs of how close you are to achieving it. You already know how a person's behavior provides clues about their thought processes, and you know that there is much more meaning behind the mask of words than meets the eye. In addition, it must be remembered that 55 percent of the message is contained in human physiology, and 38 percent in the features of the voice. In addition to the words that a person uses, there is a huge amount of crucial information that is needed in order to understand a person, earn his trust, build rapport and influence him.
Sharpness of perception. Collecting sensory information requires training, and training itself is also building rapport. You show interest in people, and most people enjoy talking to someone who is interested in them. In the sensory state, you need to focus your attention completely outward - this is called the "uptime" state - when you are completely alert, and all your senses are watching, listening, smelling, tasting and feeling the changes taking place in the world around you.
The opposite of this is downtime, when your attention is directed inward and you are engaged in reflective visualization, internal dialogue and sensations. When you are in "downtime" you miss sensory cues from the outside world.
For the sharpness of perceptions, intensive states of “uptime” are needed. Since most people have certain preferences in how they use their senses and prefer the basic modality the most, it's helpful to start developing the senses that you use the least. After prolonged practice, your visual acuity will improve greatly.
It is often the subtle changes that provide the most important signals about a person's thinking process. The English poet Siegfried Sassoon once said: “In me the tiger smells the rose.” This is a great metaphor for the sharpness of perception.
Calibration. This term refers to detecting changes in the state of other people, and paying attention to specific details of posture, breathing, skin tone, expression, voice features, etc. To notice subtle changes in a person's state, you need to be in "uptime", using your sharpness of perception. As long as we exist and have form, we have a constantly changing state. It's easy to notice the change from smiling to crying - you don't need to be very perceptive for this, but there are many much more subtle signals.
Calibration means noticing exactly what you perceive and nothing else. For example, you notice in a meeting that the chairman is looking at you, his brows are furrowed, his face is flushed, his breathing is fast, and his hands are clenched into fists on the table. This is calibration. On the other hand, you may notice these things and think: "he is upset about something - he will find fault with me now." This is called mind reading. Later in this chapter, I will describe to you a few examples of state calibration.
Adjustment. If you sit down on a bench in big city, and you will observe passers-by, you will notice many differences between them. Observing their walking pace, step size, breathing rhythm, facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, and drawing graphs showing these differences, one would get a wide range of graphs with two extreme cases.
If you imagine that two people with extremely different schedules are brought together. How would you describe their communication? Rapport was out of the question; for rapport, they would need to get closer in rhythm to each other.
Graph 1 depicts a person who moves quickly, breathes quickly, makes jerky gestures and lightning-fast eye movements.
Graph 2 depicts a person who moves slowly, breathes slowly and makes smooth movements with slow eye movements.
Rapport can be built by adjusting to a variety of physical and mental states. Breath alignment is very powerful because breathing is associated with visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities (described in Chapter 7). In addition, you can adapt to body language using attachment and mirroring.
Attaching and Mirroring
Accession is an unconscious form of communication that cements relationships by deepening rapport.
If you have ever observed people who have deep rapport with each other, you may have noticed how similar their body postures, gestures, and voice features are, for example, lovers in a restaurant, a group of managers in a meeting.
Accession is an unconscious form of communication that cements relationships by deepening rapport. Joining means doing the same, for example, if you are sitting opposite someone and he is leaning to the right, you can join this by leaning to the right yourself. mirroring means to adjust to something left with your right, in a mirror way. Do it discreetly. If you adjust too closely to the other person, he may notice this on a conscious level and accuse you of mimicking.
The purpose of attachment and mirroring is to communicate with the subconscious by entering the same "state" that the other person is in. The easiest way to do this is to join physiology. It is almost impossible to enter a state of strong self-confidence when your body is hunched over, your head is down, your facial muscles are relaxed, and your eyes are looking down.
When you join in gestures, you must do so when it is your turn to speak, not when someone else is gesturing. A shrug, a hand on the chest, an open hand pointing a finger are all subconscious communication signals that you can copy or mirror. When joining the voice, you need to listen to the rhythm, volume, speed, tone and pitch. People who speak fast (very visual) are quickly confused by people who speak slowly (very kinesthetic), and vice versa, those who speak slowly find it difficult to follow those who speak quickly. Visual people can slow down their speech by breathing more slowly in the abdomen, and kinesthetic people can speed up their speech by increasing the rate of breathing and moving it to the upper chest.
In addition, it is necessary to notice the sensory predicates used by people. If you want to break rapport with the person who tells you, “It was hard for us to take on Project Alpha because of the designers,” say, “I can imagine how they fell in your eyes.” When you use predicates from your preferred sensory system, you are easier to listen to and understand.
Attachment to values. Anyone who has worked abroad in different cultures understands the importance of values. In Arab countries, when you arrive at a meeting, you can often wait for hours and even days, along with other invitees, until you are received. The better you can connect with the values, the closer you will be to the person with whom you communicate, and the deeper the rapport will be. Here is a list of contexts to help you notice values.
Cultural values. These may be the values of the national culture, as in the example of the Arabs, or the culture of the organization. Some companies are introducing a "casual wear" day for their employees. Some people believe that a classic business suit is not needed, while others argue that it expresses the traits of professionalism and the desire for order in character. When a customer in a suit meets a supplier in casual wear, there is a cultural mismatch.
organizational values. These are not so much cultural human rituals, such as the wearing of costumes, but values that are intrinsic to staging a case. Sales managers are well aware of these values. They can be found in reception areas and meeting rooms; framed certificates for "commitment to quality" and engraved decorative plaques for "service to the community" or "contribution to the defense environment". Whatever product salespeople want to sell to the firm, make sure that it is in line with the firm's values. Other values can also be encountered, such as "innovation", "leaders in the market", "best partners", "more and better", and "investment in people". These values are often the key to successful companies sales and negotiations. The discrepancy with the values of the organization is probably the most fast way lose rapport and business.
group values. In any organization, at the group level, one can encounter a variety of value systems operating simultaneously. Groups working together in the same building can have very different values. The manufacturing group's values may be about teamwork and efficiency, and the research and development group may advocate the value of innovation.
Role values. People attach a certain importance to their roles. That is why a person chooses a certain role for himself, and values in different roles can be radically different.
Personal values. Their range is almost endless, covering values related to family, money, intelligence, relationships, work style, entertainment, recreation, social circle, hobbies, interests, and sports. These values are often revealed in informal conversation while waiting for a meeting to begin or during lunch. Therefore, it is very important to keep this conversation going for a while, at least until you join the person. These values are also manifested in the elements of a person's home and work environment - a golf prize, a club tie, a sticker on a car, a family photo, a key chain, etc., etc. These accessories are additional parts of our personality, and very important to us.
Values are hierarchical and vary in strength. Almost always, when it comes to making a choice, group values are more important than personal values, although most people join groups with values similar to their own.
Doing
By joining, you can build rapport, be trustworthy, and come off as a nice person. Once you have mastered the art of joining, you can begin to influence people in the direction you desire. Some people are natural leaders who stick firmly to their chosen direction, while others agree to follow them because they trust and treat them well. Of course, the offers must be reasonable - don't expect people to follow you if you offer inappropriate plans.
The key to joining and leading is a smooth transition from one to the other. You can simply check if you joined enough by changing your body position and noticing if the other person (or other people) followed you. If yes, keep going. If not, you need more rapport.
anchoring
Many of our memories are anchored to external stimuli. The sound of a bell can take you back to your school days. An external stimulus includes an emotional state retrieved from memory. Some of our anchors elicit pleasant emotions, while others elicit unpleasant ones. Knowing about anchors and how the anchoring process works, we can use them to our advantage. We all unconsciously anchor each other's states every day. A visual anchor can be a facial expression, a photograph, or a picture. The kinesthetic anchor can be a pat on the back or a handshake. There are times when it is desirable to use "feel good" anchors, and times when it is desirable to bring out states of "creativity," "critical analysis," or "strong focus."
Anchors can be placed in any modality - visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory or gustatory. The way to set the anchor is simple:
1. Calibrate the state you want to anchor.
2. Anchor the state with a unique stimulus (B, A, K, or any combination of them).
3. Change the state of what is being calibrated.
4. Turn on your own anchor and calibrate again to see if the desired change has taken place.
The main factors for successful anchoring are:
1. The uniqueness of the stimulus. A combination of tone of voice, gesture, and visual anchor works well. Kinesthetic anchoring is strong, but in some business situations, touching a person can break rapport.
2. Binding in time. The intensity of the state varies, it usually rises to a peak and then subsides. Sometimes the ups and downs happen so fast that you can miss them. This is where sharpness of perception can come in handy. It is advisable to anchor just before the peak of the state. Conditions with low intensity should not be anchored, as they will not give the desired effect. Examples of states that it may be desirable to anchor in others are agreement, joy, focus, creativity, relaxation, mindfulness, learning.
3. Easy to repeat anchor. The anchor must be unique, and when you use it, you need to repeat exactly what you were doing when you placed it.
Public life is unthinkable without a clash of ideas, life positions, goals of both individuals and small and large groups, other communities. In the workplace, there are often discrepancies and contradictions of various parties, often developing into industrial conflicts. The need for appropriate management of this process becomes urgent, the task of which should be to prevent the emergence of undesirable, negative conflicts, to give the inevitable conflict situations a constructive character.
Conflict is an almost inevitable part of interpersonal relationships at work. Their negative nature is manifested in a decrease in the degree of staff loyalty. An incorrect and illiterate reaction of a manager to a conflict between subordinates and a manager related to solving the issue of labor motivation of personnel provokes a decrease in the degree of loyalty in production.
Given the relevance of the problem and its eternal nature, psychologists have tried to thoroughly explore the conflict as a phenomenon. It is necessary to answer the question, what are the causes of such conflicts in practice. Psychologists M. Meskon, M. Albert, F. Khedouri identified the main destabilizing factors that are the causes of conflicts:
1. War for resources. In any firm (especially in the manufacturing industry) there is a constant war for resources. Structural divisions of the company may experience an acute shortage of resources. But qualified personnel, office equipment, and work tools also appear as the latter.
2. Interdependence of tasks. A conflict in this case is possible if the task is not completed by the department BUT losing department B. Any company is a living organism with rigidly interconnected separate elements. If for some reason one of the mechanisms breaks down, the entire system fails.
3. Differences in purpose. A business cannot exist without a specific purpose. That goal is profit. But there are many intermediate tasks on the way to the global goal. First, they seek to enter the regional market, then they enter the federal market. The most important thing is to correctly calculate your strength. But the managers of the company, and even the heads of departments, have their own vision of what intermediate tasks should be, what can be done in the first place, what in the second, and what not to do at all.
4. Differences in ideas and values. Usually, this conflictogen includes the reasons that cause aggravation of relations between workers of different ages. But in order to hold different views on life and have a different value system, it is not necessary to have a difference in age. How many people, so many opinions.
5. Differences in behavior and life experience. Each person has certain ideas about how to behave in society, what rules are best to follow. If we encounter individuals who are on a different scale life values, then conflict, even at the subconscious level, cannot be avoided.
6. Dissatisfaction with communications. In business, when solving numerous problems, it is important not so much to speak as to hear your interlocutor. You need to be able to hear. It happens that two people talk about the same thing, but they do not hear each other, because initially they are trying to subjugate the participant in the conversation.
Very often the causes of conflict situations are stress. Stress can paralyze a company if top and middle managers are afraid to make decisions. When this happens, stress spreads through the organization like a malignant fungus, and conflicts begin to become very acute. As a result, many firms began to deal with stress in the workplace as one of the factors that arise within the organization of conflict. Nearly 80% (In America) of large companies have employee assistance programs and health programs. Designed to address alcohol and drug abuse, these programs increasingly included other mental health issues. They help individuals cope with stress through counseling and appropriate exercise. However, they are not focused on changing the organizations themselves.
The very first step in managing stress is to acknowledge that it exists. Any problem solving program must proceed from the fact that there is stress, what causes it. To do this, it is necessary to collect and analyze data on the state of the current stressful environment in an organization or a separate unit. Having identified the very fact and causes of stress, it is necessary to assess the possible consequences of such a state. The next step of the program will be to determine whether stress has led to a conflict situation, and if the answer to this question is yes, to determine the type of conflict that has arisen and its direction, that is, to assume whether it will be constructive in this situation or cause destruction.
The next step should be the choice of a stress neutralization method corresponding to the current stressful and conflict situation in an organization or a separate unit (Fig. 1).
The final event (as in any other program) is summing up, comparing them with the desired results, and evaluating their effectiveness. If the measures taken did not give positive results, it is necessary to make a choice:
other methods of neutralizing stress;
or reconsider the possible causes of the situation (perhaps:
the results of the study are inaccurate;
the causes of stress and its consequences are incorrectly or inaccurately identified;
the conflict turned out to be false / was not noticed).
Fig.1. Stress management technology
The main advantages of the developed technology are:
its consistency;
ease of use;
taking into account not only personal stressors, but also organizational factors;
expediency of application both for workers of leading specialties and for working personnel;
requires minimal financial outlay.
The only disadvantage of this system, I see the impossibility of a quick, prompt decision. This means that the causes of stress conditions can change over time at an incredibly fast rate, making a decision, in turn, requires time to collect and analyze information about the situation, as well as to take measures to eliminate it. negative factors. All this can lead to the fact that stresses will not be eliminated, but on the contrary, they will be aggravated, and the conflict situation will grow more and more.
Hence, it should be concluded that the proposed technology will be effective if it is applied periodically and as a prevention of stress and, as a result, conflicts.
Numerous tests, surveys, experiments have shown that a person is most concerned about two questions: his health and the question of how to understand people, how to influence them, how to guide them, their actions?
Business communication is, first of all, communication, i.e. exchange of information that is significant for the participants in the communication. To succeed in negotiations, you must master their subject to perfection. And although specialists of various professions usually participate in negotiations, high competence is required from each.
Business communication today penetrates into all spheres. public life society. Enterprises of all types and forms of ownership, as well as individuals as private entrepreneurs, enter the commercial, business spheres of life. Competence in the field of business communication is directly related to success or failure in every field: in the field of science, art, production, trade. As for managers, businessmen, production organizers, people employed in the field of management, private entrepreneurs, communicative competence, that is, the ability to adequately respond in any situation in the process of communication, for representatives of these professions is one of the most important components of their professional image.
1. Gutbrod G. Professional business communication: Translation from English. – M.: Wolters Kluver, 2007.
2. Business communication: Guidelines for practical exercises / Samar. state tech. un-t; PIB; Comp. O.Yu. Kalmykov. Samara, 2006.
3. Kibanov A.Ya., Vorozheikin I.E., Zakharov D.K., Konovalova V.G. Conflictology: Textbook / Ed. AND I. Kibanova. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: INFRA-M, 2005.
4. Knorring V.I. Theory, practice and art of management. - M.: 2001.
5. Kovalchuk A.S. Fundamentals of imageology and business communication. M.: TD "Phoenix", 2006.
6. Malkhanova I.A. Business conversation. 5th ed. – M.: Academic project, 2007.
7. Reznik S. G. Always win business negotiations. - M .: TD "Phoenix", 2006.
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Introduction
1. The concept of "conflict"
1.1 Types and levels of conflict
2.2 Map of the conflict
Conclusion
Appendix
conflict communication business
Introduction
Each person throughout his life repeatedly encounters conflicts of various kinds. We want to achieve something, but the goal is difficult to achieve. We experience failure and are ready to blame the people around us for not being able to achieve the desired goal. And those around us - whether they are relatives or those with whom we work together, believe that we ourselves are to blame for our own failure. Either the goal was incorrectly formulated by us, or the means to achieve it were chosen unsuccessfully, or we could not correctly assess the current situation and the circumstances prevented us. Mutual misunderstanding arises, which gradually develops into discontent, an atmosphere of dissatisfaction, socio-psychological tension and conflict is created.
How to get out of this situation? Is it necessary to make any special efforts in order to overcome it and again win the favor of the people around us? Or you don't have to; should we just not pay attention to how others treat us?
To find the right solution to this dilemma, it is very useful to know what a conflict is, how it unfolds, what phases it goes through and how it is resolved. This is the point of studying conflicts. Conflicts arise in the process of interaction, communication of individuals among themselves, therefore they exist as long as a person exists. However, there is no generally accepted theory of conflicts that explains their nature, impact on the development of teams, society, although there are numerous studies on the emergence, functioning of conflicts, and their management.
In our time, there is a growing interest of service sector managers in the psychological support of their activities. The success of the staff in communicating with customers, the effectiveness of resolving conflict situations by employees, the general psychological background in the team play an important role in the effective functioning of this enterprise.
AT modern conditions a high level of business communication is a decisive condition for successful entrepreneurship. To provide high level In business communication, the head and employees of an enterprise (firm) must be able to use communication technologies based on psychological knowledge. In addition, in the process of business communication, it is necessary to take into account the possible conditions and factors of conflict situations.
The theoretical study of communication and its features has its own history. To date, a sufficiently large scientific practical material covering various aspects of communication.
AT domestic psychology and social psychology, A.A. Bodaleva, V.O. Ageeva, V.I. Zhuravleva, N.N. Obozova, I.A. Kokha, Ya.A. Antsupova, A.I. Shipilova, N.V. Grishina, F.M. Borodkina, A.K. Zaitseva, N.I. Leonov, A. G. Zdravomyslova and others.
In foreign psychology, the problem of conflict was developed by Z. Freud, A. Adler, K. Horney, E. Fromm, W. McDougall, S. Siegele, K. Levin, D. Krech, L. Lindsay, D. Dollard, L. Berkowitz, N. Miller, D. Moreno, E. Jenigs, S. Dodd, G. Gurvich and others.
It can be argued that, in general, the phenomenon of socio-psychological conflict has been studied quite fully.
1. The concept of "conflict"
1.1 Types and levels of conflict
There are various definitions of conflict, but they all make it clear that there are contradictions that take the form of a disagreement.
"Conflict-clash of oppositely directed incompatible comrade-to-friend tendencies, interpersonal interactions and relations of individuals or groups, as well as in the creation of a separate individual, associated with an acute negative experience."
"Clash is a common form of contact between people. In some cases, the clash is manifested exclusively in the struggle, in the attempts of opponents to disarm a friend of a friend. Other forms of clash are more like fights between boxers or fencers."
Moreover, it is not the conflicts themselves that are destructive, but their consequences: fear, hostility, threats. A defensive reaction may appear and be fixed - behavior that enters the structure of a person and distorts the nature of thinking, actions and feelings.
Conflicts can be hidden and obvious, but they are constantly based on contradictions, not consent. The lack of agreement is due to the presence of a variety of opinions, views, ideas, interests, points of view, etc.
From the point of view of the causes of the conflict situation, there are three types of conflicts: conflict of goals; conflict of knowledge; sensory conflict.
The conflict of goals is when the situation is characterized by the fact that the parties involved in it differently see the desired state of the object in the future.
A conflict of knowledge or when there is a situation in which the parties involved have different views, ideas and thoughts on the problem being solved. The resolution of such conflicts requires more time, as it is necessary to get out to a different level of knowledge.
Sensory conflict occurs when participants have different feelings and emotions that underlie their relationship as individuals. Such conflicts are the most difficult to resolve, since they are based on causes related to the psyche of the individual.
In addition to these types of conflicts, there are five more main types in the organization: intrapersonal; interpersonal; intragroup; intergroup; intraorganizational. These conflicts are closely related.
Intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual and is often a goal or cognitive conflict in nature. An intrapersonal conflict becomes a conflict of goals when an individual chooses and tries to achieve mutually exclusive goals. Its intensity increases with the number of alternatives, with the achievement of a balance between its positive and negative outcome and the perception of its source, which is very important for decision making. Intrapersonal conflict acquires cognitive coloring when an individual recognizes the inconsistency of his thoughts, dispositions, values, or his behavior in general. The person begins to feel uncomfortable and tries to get out of this state by eliminating this inconsistency through changing his thoughts, dispositions, values and behavior or by obtaining more information about the problem that gives rise to this inconsistency.
Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals who perceive themselves as being in opposition to each other in terms of goals, dispositions, values, or behavior. This is perhaps the most common type of conflict. It manifests itself as a clash of personalities about goals and knowledge, as well as on a sensual plane.
Intra-group conflict is more than the simple sum of intra- and interpersonal conflicts. This is usually a collision between parts and all members of the group, affecting the group dynamics and the results of the group as a whole. Production, social and emotional processes within the group influence the emergence of causes and ways to resolve intra-group conflicts. Often intra-group conflict arises as a result of a change in the balance of power in the group: a change in leadership; emergence of an informal leader; group development.
Intergroup conflict is a confrontation or clash between two or more groups in an organization. Such confrontation can be professional, industrial, social or emotional. Usually such conflicts are intense and, if not properly managed, do not give any of the groups a gain. The transition of an intergroup conflict to a sensory-emotional stage has a destructive effect not only on the groups involved in it, but also on the organization as a whole and on each of its individual participants separately. Its further development leads to intraorganizational conflict. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between these two types of conflict.
Intra-organizational conflict, however, is most often associated with opposition and clashes arising from how individual jobs or the organization as a whole were designed, as well as how the leadership in the organization was formally distributed. In this regard, there are four varieties of this conflict: vertical; horizontal, linear-functional, role-playing. In real life, these conflicts are closely intertwined with each other, but each of them has its own, rather distinct features.
Thus, vertical conflict is a conflict between levels of management in an organization. Its appearance and resolution are due to the fact that it affects the vertical connections in organizational structure: goals, top, communications, culture, etc. Horizontal conflict involves parts of the organization that are equal in status and most often acts as a conflict of goals. The development of horizontal links in the structure of the organization in many ways helps to resolve it. Linear-functional conflict is most often of a cognitive or sensual nature. Its resolution is associated with improved relations between line management and specialists. A role conflict occurs when an individual performing the role in question perceives a message that is inadequate to his role, while experiencing pressure from the sender of this message. The ambiguous perception of the role lies at the heart of this conflict.
Conflicts are also distinguished by their significance for the organization, as well as the way they are resolved. There are constructive and destructive conflicts. Constructive conflicts are characterized by disagreements that affect the fundamental aspects, the problems of the life of the organization and its members, and the resolution of which brings the organization to a new, higher and more effective level of development. Destructive conflicts lead to negative, often destructive actions, which sometimes develop into squabbles and other negative phenomena, which leads to a sharp decrease in the effectiveness of the group or organization.
1.2 Prerequisites for the emergence of a conflict in the process of business communication
Despite their specificity and diversity, conflicts have common stages of flow, a more or less clearly defined structure.
The process of business communication involves the presence of three factors: perception, emotions and information exchange. In conflict situations, it is easy to forget about it. Therefore, the following prerequisites for the emergence of conflict in business communication can be distinguished:
non-coincidence of reasoning, i.e. disagreements due to the discrepancy between your reasoning and the reasoning of the other side.
features of perception, i.e. people, very often talking, do not understand each other.
Therefore, constructive conflict resolution depends on the following factors:
the adequacy of the perception of the conflict, i.e. a fairly accurate assessment of the actions, intentions of both the enemy and one's own, not distorted by personal predilections;
openness and effectiveness of communication, readiness for a comprehensive discussion of problems, when the participants honestly express their understanding of what is happening and the way out of the conflict situation;
creating an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation.
It is also useful for a leader to know what individual personality traits create in a person a tendency or predisposition to conflict relations with other people. These qualities include:
inadequate self-assessment of one's capabilities and abilities;
the desire to dominate at all costs; say your last word;
conservatism of thinking, views, beliefs, unwillingness to overcome outdated traditions;
excessive adherence to principles and straightforwardness;
critical attitude;
a certain set of emotional qualities of a person.
1.3 The main stages of the course of the conflict
Conflicts, despite their specificity and diversity, generally have common stages of flow:
the stage of potential formation of conflicting interests, values, norms;
the stage of transition of a potential conflict into a real one or the stage of awareness by the participants of the conflict of their correctly or falsely understood interests;
the stage of conflict actions;
the stage of removing or resolving the conflict.
2. Ways to resolve a conflict situation
2.1 Style of behavior in conflict
Since in real life it is not so easy to find out the true cause of the conflict and find an adequate way to resolve it, it is advisable to choose a certain strategy of behavior depending on the circumstances. There are five main styles of behavior in conflict:
competition or rivalry;
cooperation;
compromise;
fixture;
ignoring or avoiding.
The style of behavior in a particular conflict is determined by the extent to which you want to satisfy your own interests, while acting passively or actively, and the interests of the other side, acting jointly or individually.
The style of competition or rivalry - this style is most typical for behavior in a conflict situation. It can be used if you are betting heavily on your solution to a problem that has arisen, since the outcome of the conflict is very important to you:
you feel that you have no other choice and you have nothing to lose;
must make an unpopular decision and you have sufficient authority to choose this step;
However, it should be said that this strategy rarely brings long-term results, since the losing side may not support a decision made against its will. In addition, the one who lost today may refuse to cooperate tomorrow.
Cooperation is the most difficult of all styles, but at the same time the most effective in resolving conflict situations. Its advantage is that you find the most acceptable solution for both sides and make partners out of opponents. This approach leads to success both in business and in personal life. However, this style requires the ability to explain your decisions, listen to the other side, and restrain your emotions. The absence of one of these factors makes this style ineffective.
Compromise style - its essence lies in the fact that the parties are trying to resolve differences by making mutual concessions. This style is most effective when both parties want the same thing. When using this style, the emphasis is not on a solution that satisfies the interests of both parties, but on an option that everyone could agree on.
Evasion style - usually implemented if the conflict does not affect the direct interests of the parties or the problem that has arisen is not so important for the parties and they do not need to defend their interests.
Accommodative style means that you work with the other side, but do not try to defend your own interests in order to smooth the atmosphere and restore a normal working environment. In this case, you sacrifice your own interests in favor of the other side. But this does not mean that you should give up your interests. You just have to sort of put them aside for a while, and then, in a more favorable environment, return to their satisfaction through concessions from your opponent or in some other way.
2.2 Map of the conflict
For a more successful conflict resolution, it is desirable not only to choose a style, but also to draw up a conflict map developed by H. Cornelius and S. Fair.
Its essence is as follows:
define the problem of conflict in general terms, for example, if there is a conflict over the amount of work performed, draw up a load distribution diagram;
find out who is involved in the conflict ( individual employees, groups, departments or organizations);
identify the true needs and concerns of each of the main actors in the conflict.
Drawing up such a map, according to experts, will allow:
to limit the discussion to certain formal frameworks, which will greatly help to avoid excessive manifestation of emotions, since during the mapping, people can restrain themselves;
to create an opportunity for joint discussion of the problem, to express to people their requirements and desires;
understand both one's own point of view and the point of view of others;
create an atmosphere of empathy, i.e. the opportunity to see the problem through the eyes of other people and to acknowledge the opinions of people who previously believed that they were not understood;
choose new ways to resolve the conflict.
But before you move on to resolving the conflict, try to answer the following questions:
do you want a favorable outcome;
what you need to do to better manage your emotions;
how would you feel in the place of the conflicting parties;
whether a mediator is needed to resolve the conflict;
2.3 Negotiation is the basis for resolving disagreements and conflicts
In the conditions of market relations, negotiations between people become a special area of their daily life, which has its own psychological features, and are also the basis for resolving disagreements and conflicts. The art of negotiation is specially trained all over the world. A person who is properly prepared for negotiations will be able to achieve his goal without offending his partner and leaving a favorable impression of himself. The purpose of negotiations is to reach a reasonable agreement that meets the interests of the negotiating parties.
Strategy negotiations are divided into three types:
fundamental.
soft method. A mild-mannered person wants to avoid personal conflict and is willing to make concessions in order to reach an agreement. He wants an amicable denouement, but the matter most often ends with the fact that he remains offended and feels slighted.
hard method. A tough negotiator sees any situation as a contest of wills in which the side that takes the extreme position and stubbornly stands its ground will get more. He wants to win, but often ends up causing an equally tough situation that drains himself and his resources, as well as ruining his relationship with the other side. Principled negotiation is the third way of negotiating, which involves a position based not on weakness or firmness, but rather on both sides.
The method of principled negotiation developed by the Tavard Negotiation Project is to solve problems on the basis of their qualitative properties, that is, on the basis of the essence of the matter, and not to bargain over what each side can or cannot do.
This method assumes that you strive to find mutual benefit wherever possible, and where your interests do not coincide, you should insist on an outcome that would be based on some fair norms, regardless of the will of each of the parties.
The method of principled negotiations means a tough approach to the consideration of the merits of the case, but provides a soft approach to the relations between the negotiators.
Principled negotiation shows you how to achieve what is rightfully yours while remaining within the bounds of decency. This method allows you to be fair while protecting you from those who might take advantage of your integrity.
The method of principled negotiation can be used to resolve one issue or several, under ritually prescribed circumstances, or in an unpredictable situation, as is the case in negotiations with hijackers. This method depends on the methods of the opposing side.
Principled negotiation is a strategy designed to achieve all goals.
In addition to the principled method, there is a positional method, a method of positional discussions, in which the emphasis is not on the essence of the dispute, but on the position of each of the parties. This method does not meet the main criteria: it is not effective, does not achieve the goal, spoils the relationship between the parties.
The principled method constitutes an alternative to the positional approach and is intended for effective and friendly negotiations and the achievement of a reasonable result. This method can be summarized in four main points:
People - the distinction between the negotiators and the negotiator;
Options - before deciding what to do, highlight the range of possibilities.
Interests - Focus on interests, not positions.
Criteria - insist that the result be based on some objective standard.
To resolve various disputes, it is very important to clarify the way of thinking, the thinking of opponents, which is very conducive to successful negotiation.
Emotions are also an important point in negotiating, which must be suppressed by the so-called "steam release" method, which allows you to get rid of feelings of anger and fear that arise in disputes. In addition, apologies, expressions of regret, handshakes, inexpensive gifts, etc., remove the hostile situation.
3. Prevention of conflicts in business communication
Practice shows that there are no unsolvable conflicts that could not be resolved without the use of force. Therefore, any attempt to resolve the conflict situation "peacefully" must be used.
The most effective means should be recognized as the elimination from business communication of judgments and assessments that could infringe on the honor and dignity of the interlocutor. Very undesirable and patronizing judgments and assessments, expressed with a sense of ill-concealed superiority or neglect. Of course, it is practically impossible to completely eliminate the evaluative approach to the subjects of conversation from business communication. Therefore, one should try to focus on positive judgments and assessments, remembering that all people more favorably accept positive information, and not negative, which often leads to conflict situations. Assessments should be as tactful as possible and not touch the interlocutor himself.
Another effective means of preventing conflict situations is to prevent a dispute in business communication, since during a dispute a person rarely manages to maintain self-control and dignity. Arguing, we begin to get excited and, without noticing it ourselves, make insulting remarks and allow annoying rudeness. In this regard, I would like to once again recall the words of Dale Carnegie, an ardent opponent of any dispute, who convincingly proves that “in nine cases out of ten disputes end with each of its participants, even more than before, being affirmed in their absolute rightness. You can't win an argument. You can't because if you lose in an argument, then you lose, if you win, then you lose too. You may be absolutely right in proving your point of view, but all your attempts to convince the interlocutor will probably remain as futile as if you were wrong."
A good means of preventing conflicts is the ability to listen to the interlocutor, since it is a criterion for sociability. The extent to which the interlocutor is given the opportunity to speak largely depends on his disposition and confidence.
However, the most reliable means of preventing a conflict situation is a conscious rejection of any conflict. To do this, you need to learn how to avoid them. To begin with, consciously refuse to participate in quarrels. This refusal must be translated into the subconscious, i.e. it should become a principle in your behavior, your psychological attitude.
In any conflict, no one can ever prove anything to anyone. Even by force. Negative emotional impacts block the ability to understand, take into account and agree with the opponent. The work of thought stops. And if a person is not able to think, the rational part of the brain is turned off, then there is no need to try to prove something. It just doesn't make sense.
If you still lost control of yourself and did not notice how you were drawn into the conflict, try to do the only right thing in this case - shut up. Your silence will allow you to get out of the quarrel and stop it. Indeed, two parties usually participate in any conflict, and if one of them has disappeared, then there will simply be no one to quarrel with.
In the event that neither of the participants in the conflict is inclined to stop, both are very quickly captured by negative emotional arousal. The tension is rising rapidly. In such a "dialogue" the mutual remarks of the participants only "add fuel to the fire."
However, silence should not be offensive to the opponent. If it is colored with mockery, gloating or defiance, then it can act like a red rag on a bull. In order for the scandal to stop, it is necessary to ignore the very fact of the quarrel in silence, and then the negative excitement of the opponent will decrease sharply.
It should be avoided in every possible way to state the negative emotional state of the opponent: "Why are you nervous?", "Calm down, please", etc. Such "soothing" words only intensify the development of the conflict.
The quarrel can be stopped if you calmly and without any words leave the room. But if at the same time you slam the door or say something offensive before leaving, you can cause the effect of a terrible destructive force.
If you are silent, and the opponent regarded the rejection of the quarrel as a surrender, it is better not to refute this. Keep pausing until it cools down. The position of one who refuses to quarrel must completely exclude anything offensive and insulting to the opponent. The winner is not the one who leaves the last smashing attack behind him, but the one who manages to stop the conflict at the beginning does not give him acceleration.
In business communication, the subjunctive softens the statement, makes it less categorical, reflects the speaker's reluctance to insist on the statement, and makes it easier for the other interlocutor to continue the discussion of the business and put forward an alternative to the proposal or concept ("I would agree").
Ask questions, as such phrases express doubt about the acceptability of the proposal, but eliminate the need for specific objections that can cause an unfavorable reaction from the interlocutor (negotiating partner) and complicate the business. Thus, he is left to present arguments in support of his position himself and, possibly, to discover their weak points ("Is it a good idea?").
Another mild form of expressing unwillingness to agree to the proposed conditions, leaving the interlocutor the opportunity to think, for example, about discounts and inquire about reasonable prices himself, is the use of questions in a negative form ("Don" t you think the price is too high?").
Use "I'm afraid", as such a phrase makes it clear to the interlocutor that the partner is still hesitating and his disagreement has not been finalized, so that further discussion of the business is still possible, or that the partner regrets that he has to upset him with a refusal, and this smooths out his hostile reaction. ("I'm afraid I disagree").
The use of diminutive inserts again makes it clear to the interlocutor that the partner is still hesitating and his disagreement has not been finally determined, so a positive result of the negotiations is still possible if you manage to overcome his doubt or make some concessions in business ("This is a bit difficult") .
The comparative degree means appreciation for a benevolent or generous offer, but gently expresses interest in a more attractive option ("Tea is wonderful but coffee is more wonderful").
In business communication, it costs nothing, on the contrary, it is noble and generous - to express confidence that it was the interlocutor who showed the best qualities and contributed to resolving the issue to mutual satisfaction, or to emphasize gratitude for the way he accepted the service, so use intonation ("Thank YOU" ).
"I think so, but maybe I'm wrong...". In business communication, this phrase suggests that not everything has yet been decided: as a result of a business discussion, doubts can be eliminated ("I reckon this is impossible").
Conclusion
Life cannot be without conflict. Universal harmony of interests is the lot of utopian socialists.
The very essence of market and democratic relations is based on free confrontation, competitiveness of individuals and social structures. However, this confrontation must be in line with civilized rules. social interaction. The essence of a person is largely determined by how he behaves in a conflict situation.
In my work, I tried to consider the principles, techniques and techniques of optimal constructive conflict resolution in business communication and came to the conclusion that, just as no leadership style can be effective in all situations without exception, so none of the above principles of conflict resolution cannot be singled out as the best. We must learn how to effectively use each of them and consciously make one or another choice, taking into account specific circumstances.
List of used literature
Vorozheikin, I.E., Kibanov, A.Ya., Zakharov, D.K. Conflictology. - M.: Infra-M, 2000.- 224 p.
Grishina, N.V. Psychology of conflict. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Piter", 2000. - 464 p.
Zieger V.N., Lang L.A. Lead without conflict.- M., 1990.-351p.
Karpov A.V. Psychology of management: textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2006.- 554 p.
Lavrinenko V.N. Psychology and ethics of business communication: Textbook for universities. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2000. - 327 p.
Morozov, A.V. business psychology. - St. Petersburg: Union Publishing House, 2000. -576 p.
Scott J. The power of the mind. Conflict resolution methods. -M., 1993.-611s.
Cherednechenko I.P. Telnykh N.V. Psychology of management. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2004.- 428 p.
Appendix
Rules of conduct in a conflict:
1. Remember that in a conflict a person is dominated not by reason, but by emotions, which leads to affect, when consciousness simply turns off, and a person is not responsible for his words and actions.
2. Take a multi-alternative approach and, while insisting on your proposal, do not reject the partner's proposal by asking yourself the question: "Am I never wrong?".
3. Recognize the significance of conflict resolution for yourself by asking the question: "What happens if a solution is not found?" This will shift the focus from the relationship to the problem.
4. If you and your interlocutor are irritated and aggressive, then you need to reduce internal tension, "let off steam." But discharged on others is not an option, but a trick. But if it so happened that you lost control of yourself, try to do the only thing: shut up yourself, and do not demand this from your partner. Avoid stating negative emotional states of your partner.
5. Focus on the positive, the best in a person. Then you oblige him to be better.
6. Invite the interlocutor to take your place and ask:
"What would you do if you were in my position?". This removes the critical attitude and switches the interlocutor from emotions to understanding the situation.
7. Do not exaggerate your merits and do not show signs of superiority.
8. Don't blame or make your partner responsible for the situation.
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Conflicts manifest themselves in the activities of all social institutions, groups, in relationships between people. The American social psychologist B. Wool said this: “life is a process of solving an infinite number of conflicts, a person cannot avoid them. He can only decide whether to participate in decision making or leave it to others.” Therefore, the leader, and indeed every cultured person, needs to have at least elementary ideas about conflicts, ways of behaving when they arise. Unfortunately, most people are characterized by the inability to find a worthy way out of them. In addition, as soon as a conflict arises, and it is always associated with emotions, we begin to experience discomfort, tension, which can even lead to stress and damage the health of the participants in the conflict.
Conflicts: types, structure, stages of flow.
What is conflict? In psychology, conflict is defined as a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible tendencies in the mind of a single individual, in interpersonal interactions or interpersonal relationships of individuals or groups of people, associated with negative emotional experiences. (A Brief Psychological Dictionary. / Under the editorship of A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M., 1985). The basis of conflict situations in groups between individuals is the clash of opposing interests, opinions, goals with different ideas about how to achieve them.
In psychology, there is a multivariate typology of conflicts, built depending on the criteria that are taken as a basis. For example, the conflict might be intrapersonal(between kindred sympathies and a sense of duty of the leader); interpersonal(between the head and his deputy regarding the position, bonuses to employees); between the individual and the organization in which it is included; between organizations or groups of the same or different status.
The following classification of conflicts is possible: 1) horizontally (between ordinary employees who are not subordinate to each other); 2) vertically (between people who are subordinate to each other) and 3) mixed, in which both are represented. The most common are 2) and 3) conflicts. They make up approximately 70-80% of all conflicts, are undesirable for the leader, since each of his actions is viewed through the prism of this conflict.
Classification according to the nature of the causes that led to the conflict. There are three groups of reasons that are due to:
labor process;
Psychological features of human relationships: their sympathies, antipathies; cultural, ethnic differences of people; actions of the leader, poor psychological communication;
The personal originality of the members of the group, for example, the inability to control their emotional state, aggressiveness, lack of communication skills, tactlessness.
Conflicts are distinguished by their significance for the organization, as well as by the way they are resolved. Distinguish constructive and destructive conflicts. The former are characterized by disagreements that affect the fundamental aspects, the problems of the organization's life and the resolution of which brings the organization to a new, higher and more effective level of development. The latter lead to negative, often destructive actions, which sometimes develop into squabbles and other negative phenomena, which drastically reduces the effectiveness of the group or organization.
Strategy of behavior in a conflict situation.
Since in real life it is not easy to find out the true cause of the conflict and find an adequate way to resolve it, it is advisable to familiarize yourself with the strategy of behavior in a conflict situation and consciously choose a certain style of behavior depending on the circumstances.
There are 5 main styles of behavior in conflict:
competition or rivalry;
Cooperation;
Compromise;
Fixture;
Ignore or avoid.
The style of behavior in a particular conflict is determined by the extent to which you want to satisfy your own interests, while acting passively or actively, and the interests of the other side, acting jointly or individually.
Style of competition or rivalry. This style is most typical for behavior in a conflict situation. According to statistics, more than 70% of all cases in the conflict is the desire for a unilateral gain, for victory, for the satisfaction of one's own interests. This results in a desire to put pressure on a partner, to impose their interests, ignoring the interests of the other side. It can be used by a person with a strong will, sufficient authority, power. At the same time, such a person:
Considers it obvious that the solution he proposes is the best;
Feels that he has no other choice and has nothing to lose;
Must make an unpopular decision and has sufficient authority to choose this move;
Interacts with subordinates who prefer an authoritarian style.
This strategy rarely brings long-term results, as the losing party may not support a decision that is made against its will, or even try to sabotage it. In addition, the one who lost today may refuse to cooperate tomorrow.
This style cannot be used in personal relationships, as it will not cause anything other than alienation. A marriage in which one side suppresses the other leads to irresolvable contradictions and even a complete break. You should not use this style in a situation where you do not have enough power, and your point of view on the issue is at odds with the point of view of the boss, and there are not enough arguments to prove it.
Collaboration Style- the most difficult of all styles, but it is most effective in resolving a conflict situation. Its advantage is that you find the most acceptable solution for both sides and make partners out of opponents. It means finding ways to involve all participants in the conflict resolution process and striving to satisfy the interests of all. This approach leads to success in business and personal life. The best way to start implementing this strategy is with the phrase: "I want a fair outcome for both of us", "Let's see how we can both get what we want", "I came to you to solve our problem." Penetrating deep into the differences, you should establish what need is behind the desires of the other side, find out how your differences compensate for each other.
It was found that if both parties win, they are more likely to implement the decisions made, since they are acceptable to them, and both parties took part in the entire conflict resolution process. However, this style requires the ability to explain your decisions, listen to the other side, and restrain your emotions. The absence of one of these factors makes this style ineffective. This style can be used to resolve a conflict in the following cases:
If each of the approaches to the problem is important and does not allow compromise solutions, however, a common solution must be found;
The main goal is to acquire joint work experience; the parties are able to listen to each other and state the essence of their interests;
There is a long, strong and interdependent relationship with the conflicting party;
It is necessary to integrate points of view and strengthen the personal involvement of employees in activities.
compromise style. The parties are trying to resolve differences by making mutual concessions. In this respect, it resembles the style of cooperation, but is carried out at a more superficial level. This style is most effective when both parties desire the same thing but know that the desires are unfulfillable, such as striving for the same position or the same work space. When using this style, the emphasis is not on a solution that satisfies the interests of the parties, but on the option: "We cannot fully fulfill our desires, therefore, it is necessary to come to a solution that each of us can agree on." Each participant must remember that some finite amount is being divided, and that in the process of dividing it, the needs of all participants cannot be completely satisfied.
One of the disadvantages of the style is that one side may, for example, exaggerate its demands in order to later appear generous or give in to the other. In such a situation, it is possible that neither party will stick to a solution that does not satisfy its needs. It should also be taken into account that if a compromise was reached without a thorough analysis of other possible solutions, then it may not be the most optimal outcome of the conflict situation.
Ultimately, the style of compromise in conflict resolution can be used in the following situations:
Both sides have equally persuasive arguments and wield the same power;
Satisfying the desire of one of the parties is of little importance to her;
Perhaps a temporary solution, as other approaches to solving the problem have proven ineffective;
Compromise allows at least something to gain than to lose everything.
Evasion Style implemented if the conflict does not affect the direct interests of the parties or the problem that has arisen is not so important for the parties and there is no need to defend their rights; or the party is not cooperating with anyone for you
working out a solution, and non-involvement in it does not affect the development of the conflict; or simply the party does not want to spend time and effort on its solution. This style is also recommended in cases where one of the parties has more power or feels that they are not right, or believes that there is no good reason to continue contacts. The style is also applicable when a party has to deal with a conflicting personality.
The conflicting party may use the evasion style if it:
Believes that the source of disagreement is trivial and insignificant compared to other, more important tasks;
Knows that he cannot or even does not want to resolve the issue in his favor;
Has little power to solve a problem in the way she wants;
Wants to buy time to study the situation and get more information before making any decision;
Believes that it is dangerous to solve the problem immediately, since open discussion of the conflict can only worsen the situation;
Subordinates themselves can resolve the conflict;
Solving the problem can worsen your health;
When people who are difficult from the point of view of communication are involved in the conflict - rude people, complainers, whiners.
It should not be thought that this style is an escape from a problem or an evasion of responsibility. In fact, leaving or postponing may be a very appropriate response to a conflict situation, since during this time it may resolve itself, or you can deal with it when you have sufficient information and a desire to resolve it.
Fixture style means that you are acting in concert with the other party, but not trying to defend your own interests in order to improve the atmosphere and restore a normal working environment. Sometimes this is the only way conflict resolution, because by the time it arises, the other person's needs may be more vital than yours, or their experiences may be stronger. In this case, you sacrifice your own interests in favor of the other side. But this does not mean that you should give up your interests. You are forced to postpone their implementation for a while, and then, in a more favorable environment, return to their satisfaction through concessions from your opponent or in some other way.
The fixture style can be applied in the following most typical situations:
When the most important task is to restore calm and stability, and not to resolve the conflict;
The subject of the disagreement is not important to you or you do not particularly care about what happened;
You realize that the truth is on your side;
You feel like you don't have enough power or a chance to win.
Just as no single leadership style can be effective in all situations without exception, so none of the conflict resolution styles discussed can be singled out as the best. We must learn how to effectively use each of them and consciously make one or another choice, taking into account specific circumstances.
Rules of conduct in a conflict.
Since conflicts often give rise to such an emotional state in which it is difficult to think, draw conclusions, and be creative in solving a problem, then adhere to the following rules when resolving a conflict situation.
1. Remember that in a conflict a person is dominated not by reason, but by emotions. This leads to affect, when consciousness simply turns off, and a person is not responsible for his words and deeds.
2. Take a multi-alternative approach and, while insisting on your proposal, do not reject the partner's proposal by asking yourself the question: “Am I never wrong?” Try to analyze both proposals and find out what amount of benefits and losses they will bring in the near future and in the long term.
3. Recognize the significance of conflict resolution for yourself by asking the question: “What will happen if a solution is not found?”. This will shift the focus from the relationship to the problem.
4. If you and your employee are irritated and aggressive, then you need to reduce internal tension by “letting off steam”. However, discharged on others is not an option, but a trick. But if it really happened, try to do the only thing: shut up yourself, and do not demand this from your partner. Avoid stating negative emotional states of your partner.
5. Focus on the positive, the best in a person. Then you oblige him to be better.
6. Invite the interlocutor to take your place and ask: “If you were in my place, what would you do?” This removes the critical attitude and switches the interlocutor from emotions to understanding the situation.
7. Do not exaggerate your merits and do not show signs of superiority.
8. Don't blame or make your partner responsible for the situation.
9. Regardless of the outcome of conflict resolution, try not to destroy the relationship.
In business relationships, conflicts are inevitable. Conflict - this is the result of the interaction of two or more subjects having mutually exclusive goals and realizing them one at the expense of the other. Conflicts are characterized by the opposite of psychological attitudes and behavior, reaching the point of psychological incompatibility, that is, the inability of partners to continue joint activities.
conflict is a situation where opposite positions of the parties, goals and means of resolving an existing problem collide. Conflict is a psychological category. It has objective reasons (goals, interests, positions of the parties) and subjective reasons (psychological incompatibility of partners).
In order for a conflict to arise and develop, a reason (incident) is needed, that is, actions of one of the parties, as a result of which the interests, rights or freedoms of the other party (s) are infringed, even if this is not done with malicious intent. Participants in a conflict most often believe, or at least act as if they believe, that they have the truth on their side.
By some estimates, more than 65% of problems in organizations are related to broken relationships rather than professional difficulties. On average, 25% of managers' time is spent on conflict resolution, but 70-80% of them in organizations are somehow dependent on the activities of management. The people involved in the conflict try to find supporters for themselves, and therefore it tends to grow. The conflict is not always destructive, sometimes it carries a constructive way out of the current situation.
Despite the fact that conflict is always a process, it has certain elements that form its internal structure as a holistic phenomenon:
- 1. parties to the conflict.
In any conflict there are at least two conflicting parties - individuals or groups. Conflicts can also be multilateral, when more than two parties participate in the interaction, differing in roles in it:
- participants in the conflict are divided into direct and indirect. Between direct participants allocate just active and initiator (or instigator) of the conflict. Indirect participants may explicitly or implicitly support direct participants or even provoke conflict in order to achieve their own interests;
- organizer conflict - the one who plans it and manages its course;
- a victim of conflict;
- intermediary - this is a judge who can help reduce the severity or complete cessation of the conflict.
In a conflict, the roles of participants can change: at one stage, a person or group acts as the initiator of the conflict, and towards the end they move into the category of victims.
Each side of the conflict has force (potential) - the ability and ability to realize their goals in spite of the opposition of the opponent. Strength is a combination of potential and actual means and resources of the parties to the conflict. According to Western standards, there are three most important power source: violence, wealth and knowledge. Violence is considered a low-quality force, the use of which is generally undesirable, and in a business conflict is unacceptable.
Wealth can be used both positively and negatively. Therefore, it is a power of average quality. Force top quality - knowledge (information combined with its skillful use). At the same time, along with true facts and scientific laws, religious views and even false and ambiguous facts are weapons of the power game. Knowledge is the most flexible, universal and democratic source of power. (“Informed means armed.”)
- 2. subject of the conflict. That, because of which a conflict arises, an objectively existing or perceived as such a problem; this is the contradiction for the sake of resolving which the parties come into conflict. The subject of the conflict is always real and relevant. (For example, unfair, according to employees, attitude towards them, inept management, etc.)
- 3. The object of the conflict - a specific cause, the visible driving force of the conflict. It can be real or false, potential or actual, false or illusory. This is a material (resource), spiritual (idea, norm, principle, etc.) or social (power) value, which both opponents strive to possess or use.
Condition conflict is the claim of one of the parties to the indivisibility of the object, possession of it. Anything can be such an object: a convenient location for a desk in an office, a salary increase, a copyright, a personal car, an enterprise, an oil field, etc. There are three types of objects of conflict, which are:
- cannot be divided into parts, it is impossible to own them jointly with someone;
- can be divided into parts in various proportions;
- the parties to the conflict can own them jointly (this is a situation of imaginary conflict).
It must be borne in mind that, even if the object of the conflict is somehow eliminated, and the subject remains, the possibility of continuing the conflict or the emergence of a new one remains (for example, if an employee believes that he is not paid enough because the boss is unfair to him, a simple salary increase will stop the conflict only for a while.If the relationship is not changed, the conflict will begin on another issue).
4. Environment. This is a set of objective physical and social conditions of the conflict. The environment of the conflict has a great influence on its causes and dynamics.
Both individuals and groups can act as parties to the conflict. According to the nature of their involvement in the conflict, its types are distinguished.
Interpersonal. These are conflicts of relations between specific people, individual parts of the group, the leader and the group, the group and its member. Researchers note that there is a certain minimum of conflict that is necessary to maintain social activity in the team.
The strength of the team is not in the absence of conflict, but in the productive resolution of contradictions for its unity and successful achievement of common goals.
Variants of conflicts depend on the hierarchical position of the conflicting personality in the team.
"Supervisor - team" (“vertical conflict”). Its possible causes:
- new leader appointed from the outside, and the team had its own applicant for this position, whom the employees consider worthy;
- inadequate management style, low competence of the head;
- strong influence of negatively directed microgroups and their leaders.
"Ordinary member of the team - team" ("horizontal conflict"), Possible causes:
- conflict personality;
- discrepancy between group and personal motivations (this reason can serve as an internal basis for the manifestation of the others listed below);
- violation of group norms of behavior;
- the inadequacy of the person's internal attitude to his status, the person's incorrect assessment of his role in the group;
- mismatch of expectations - a person's behavior does not match what the group expected from him in accordance with his age, gender, education, status, and the atmosphere in the group is not what he hoped for.
In a situation of such a conflict, group sanctions are applied to a person.
"Leader - group (microgroup). Possible reasons:
- low professional training of the leader;
- provoking a conflict, using compromising evidence against the leader;
- excess of authority by the leader, his attempt to take more power than the group allows him to have;
- change in group consciousness.
Highly developed groups react to conflicts by mobilizing efforts to overcome the difficulties that have arisen, and low-level groups, conflict can lead to internal disorganization. Positive for the group are those conflicts that do not affect the foundations of its existence, fundamental goals, values, organizational culture. Such conflicts only contribute to the reorientation of the norms and relations adopted in the group, according to the need that has arisen. On the contrary, if the conflict is connected with the most important values of the group, it undermines its foundations and tends to destroy it.
Intrapersonal. Conflicts between contradictory personal attitudes. For example, the discrepancy between personal and corporate ethics, the rejection of her personality.
Intergroup. These are conflicts between groups or divisions. They arise in any situations in which participants in communication perceive each other and themselves as members of different groups, and not as autonomous people. Conflict occurs when the interests of strong groups are opposed. In other cases, relatively stable relationships are possible. In an intergroup conflict, the opposing sides are groups (small, medium, or microgroups). The confrontation is based on the clash of oppositely directed group motives (interests, values, goals). Such conflicts have specific functions:
- rallying a group that defends just interests;
- a split in a group defending illicit interests;
- approval of the status of the individual in the group.
Under the influence of a conflict situation, there are changes in relations between groups:
- 1. Members of conflicting groups perceive each other according to the "We - They" scheme. Each of the parties sees the other as impersonal, that is, it considers its members as representatives of some category or group, and not as separate individuals. This perception contributes to the intensification and persistence of the conflict, weakening the factors that deter aggressive action. In addition to the depersonalization of the other, self-depersonalization also occurs, that is, a person perceives himself more as a member of a group than as an independent person.
- 2. Inadequate social, group comparison. In group opinions, one's own group is valued higher, and the merits of the opposing group are underestimated.
- 3. "Double standards". The positive, approved behavior of one's own group and the negative behavior of a stranger is explained by internal causes. Accordingly, the negative behavior of one's own group and the positive behavior of a stranger is explained by external circumstances. (“We do well because we are good, and bad because of bad circumstances. They do bad because they are bad, and if they do something good, then by accident.”)
The behavior of most people in intergroup conflicts depends mainly on the acceptance of group norms, and not on personality traits. Experiments are widely known in which relatively large groups were divided into two small ones, and in such a way that people who knew each other and even sympathized with each other ended up in different groups.
Then an acute competitive situation, even enmity, was artificially created. As a result, the competing groups formed a negative image of the opposing group. Hostility between members of different groups quickly arose and grew sharply. Ugly plans were attributed to the enemy, all obscure situations were interpreted in their favor and to the detriment of the dignity of strangers. The past individual experience of a good relationship with a person who found himself in the camp of strangers was rejected. Solidarity triumphed in the general hostility to the rival group. In conditions of a limited resource, competition aggravated negative processes in the perception and assessment of the enemy and in interaction with him.
One of the most "sharp" experiments of this kind was that the participants were brought to the premises of the former prison and one group (by lot) was appointed "prisoners", and the other - "guards" with unlimited power. At first, the participants in the experiment perceived the situation as a joke, but after a few days, the "guards" began to demonstrate their power in every possible way and behave very harshly with the "prisoners" who showed hatred for the "guards". There was a strong intergroup conflict, life-threatening participants, and the experiment was terminated.
With the opposite organization of the experiment, people who treated each other with indifference or hostility fell into small groups. But they set common interdependent goals. The experience of cooperation in the name of common goals reduced the intensity of hostility and disposed the participants to sympathy and mutual understanding.
From the point of view of the consequences for the further existence of the group, the main positive function of the conflict is that it contributes to the emergence and strengthening of group self-consciousness and more clearly defines the boundaries between the group and the social environment. The unifying meaning of the struggle is manifested in several factors: in strengthening unity both in consciousness and in actions; in greater group cohesion; the exclusion of elements that can violate the boundaries of opposing groups, as well as the very possibility of uniting in the struggle of people and groups that in a peaceful situation are not related to each other.
To prevent and regulate intergroup conflicts, it is necessary to change stereotypes, that is, replace destructive, hostile, negative stereotypes with those that would not actualize intergroup aggression and conflict, would not prevent the establishment of relationships and the use of compromise strategies in decision-making.
Interdepartmental. Conflicts caused not by personal, but by departmental interests. They follow the same patterns as the intergroup ones.
Conflicts in organizations, on the one hand, have universal features, on the other hand, they have some substantive features.
Conflicts in organizations are divided into:
- 1. innovative - at the time of reforms. People usually do not like changes, they assume that they can threaten them with something, therefore, when they approach, the tension in the organization always increases. In addition, innovations in organizations are directly related to structural changes, territorial movements, redistribution of professional and functional duties and powers. Any restructuring and development in general are associated with the production of tension and conflict in interpersonal relationships in the team. But at the same time, the origins of conflicts are seen by the members of the collective not in the nature of the substantive activity of the group, but in the sphere of personal relations. Therefore, during the reforms in the organization, all types of them become aggravated.
- 2. Because of the demand for justice. Arise in the distribution of money or benefits. This is a showdown on the principle: “Why is that?” The conflicts of justice turn out to be protracted, since the feeling of resentment is fixed at the level of group and personal relations.
- 3. Because of resources. These are the most common real conflicts over finances, equipment, premises, benefits.
- 4. Positional. Due to the psychological incompatibility of the members of the group.
- 5. Dynamic. Situational conflicts, "from scratch" are, as a rule, a disguised form or a recurrence of conflicts of 2, 3 or 4 types.
Conflicts may be targeted when the achievement of victory makes the result absolute (for example, an election or appointment to the position sought), and status (multi-faceted and exciting for many people, when the “loss” or “win” of each participant is difficult to determine unambiguously).
As a rule, the conflict does not arise suddenly, but has certain development stages:
- 1. Pre-conflict stage. Tension appears between the future participants in the conflict. For conflict to develop, incident, in which one of the parties commits actions that infringe on the interests of the other.
- 2. "Acute" stage of a clear manifestation of the conflict, which goes beyond the initial incident, there are signs of 1-2 types of conflicts described above.
- 3. Resolution of the conflict or its transition into a protracted "chronic" form, which is especially characteristic of conflicts of position and justice.
conflict (from lat. conflictus) is defined by most researchers as a form of interaction characterized by the presence of opposite tendencies in the subjects of interaction. As a rule, the “collision” underlying it, the confrontation (which is also synonymous with “incompatibility”, “struggle”, “disagreements”, etc.) is emphasized. However, as rightly pointed out by N.V. Grishin in the monograph "Psychology of Conflict" (2008), such a broad interpretation leads to the fact that a very wide range of phenomena fall under the concept of conflict, for example, an armed clash between neighboring states, a family quarrel, an office conflict, a strike at an enterprise, a personal drama, because in in all these situations there is a clash of conflicting or incompatible interests, positions, tendencies, etc. Based on the essential, invariant signs of a conflict that are present in their various forms, the author gives the following definition: a conflict is a bipolar phenomenon (confrontation of two principles), manifesting itself in the activity of the parties aimed at overcoming contradictions, and the parties are represented by an active subject (subjects). This means conscious, active actions (at least potential ones) on the part of each of the parties and translates the subject of consideration into the realm of real human relations (as opposed to, for example, contradictions) (Grishina N.V., 2008, p. 23 - 24 ).
The notion that conflict is always a negative phenomenon, causing feelings of anxiety and confusion, a sign of ineffective organization and poor management, has now given way to the understanding that conflict has constructive as well as destructive sides. Moreover, conflicts are not only possible, but also useful, and even desirable, because they help to resolve the confrontation and clarify differences in points of view. L. Ivey (1995), the author of a manual on business communication translated in many countries, notes that managers often react as pessimists when they get into conflict situations. However, it is necessary to understand that problems and conflicts are both opportunities and prospects. In reality, it is precisely different views on the creation of a new product, a big difference in opinions that can become the starting point for new ideas. The ability to creatively resolve conflict, place two incompatible ideas side by side, and develop alternative approaches to combine or synthesize them distinguishes outstanding managers who have achieved success.
The well-known American social psychologist D. Myers (1998) emphasizes the differences between the objective confrontation of the parties and its subjective reflection by the participants and defines the conflict as “the perceived incompatibility of actions and goals” (p. 632). He also focuses on positive aspects conflict, saying that relationships or organizations in which there is no conflict seem to be doomed to extinction. Conflicts breed responsibility, determination and caring. Once recognized and understood, they can stimulate renewal and improvement in human relationships. In the absence of conflict, people rarely recognize and resolve their problems.
So, we can talk about the existence of constructive and negative sides conflict.
Constructive side of the conflict:
- ? the conflict reveals shortcomings and contradictions, leads to their awareness, encourages the search for ways to solve problems;
- ? the adoption of informed decisions contributes to the solution of problems associated with existing contradictions;
- ? participants in the interaction (or a group) in this way can take an active position in interaction with others, uphold rights; solving the problem, taking into account the opinions of all parties, allows everyone to feel involved in its solution, increases responsibility, cohesion in the group;
- ? a joint decision is implemented faster and better;
- ? parties gain experience of cooperation in solving contentious issues;
- ? the practice of constructive conflict resolution reduces the fears of employees to openly express their opinion, including those that differ from the opinion of senior officials; relations between people improve;
- ? people cease to view the existence of disagreements as an "evil", always leading to bad consequences.
The destructive side of the conflict:
- ? the conflict carries an abundance of negative emotions, stress, worries, disappointments, feelings of guilt, etc., which impede effective interaction and decision-making, the likelihood of making impulsive or forceful decisions increases;
- ? there is an increase in the tension of interpersonal relations in the group, the group can break up into separate, hostile groups; provoke unproductive, competitive relations between people, sometimes the conflict leads to violence and destruction of the personality;
- ? reinforce the idea of the opponent as an "enemy", about his position - only as a negative one, and about his own position - as an exclusively positive one;
- ? reinforce attitudes that "winning" the conflict is more important than solving the real problem.
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