Partial disorder of the writing process. Dysgraphia as a partial specific violation of the writing process. Types of writing disorders

19.11.2019

According to our observations, the most important factor influencing this process is the massiveness of residual organic symptoms. Therefore, children with organic infantilism turn out to be less prosperous in such cases than children with cerebrosthenic infantilism.

Specific writing disorders

In the existing literature on writing disorders in children, there is no unity both in terms of terminology and in determining the nature of these conditions. As with dyslexia, in the West, to determine specific spelling disability (disorthografia), it is accepted quantitative criterion: lag in writing skills by two or more standard errors (or one and a half to two classes) from the level of assimilation of other subjects in the absence of significant impairments of intelligence, vision or hearing (ICD-10). Qualitative characteristics errors are not given importance for classifying the disorder as specific. Errors play a significant role in assigning disortography to one of the subtypes. According to E. Boder (1973), for example, the following subtypes are distinguished: dysphonetic (inversions of order or arrangement predominate among errors), dyseidetic (errors in the form of phonetic spelling instead of traditional, i.e. how they hear and write) and mixed dysphonetic-dyseidetic.

In the Russian speech therapy literature, the definitions of specific writing disorders have not been sufficiently developed to date. Here are some examples. "Dis-graphy is specific disorder writing process” [Lalaeva R.I., 1989], without any specific criteria for delimitation. "Partial disorder of writing processes... Their main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors... not associated with either a decrease in intellectual development, or with severe hearing and vision impairments, or with the irregularity of schooling" [Sadovnikova I. N., 1995] . The latter definition seems to be more meaningful, but the diagnostic criteria are predominantly negative, excluding (the so-called "exclusion criteria"). The only positive criterion is the presence of specific errors in the letter. According to existing practice, it is the only working criterion in Russia. However, in this case, the question remains unclear: what errors can be legitimately considered specific and how do they differ from non-specific ones? The last question of a conceptual, theoretically substantiated answer is usually not given. Almost all authors confine themselves to listing specific errors and describing the alleged mechanisms of their occurrence. The range of errors listed in various works, differs quite significantly. From our point of view, it is legitimate to call specific only the disorder itself and its mechanisms, and not writing errors. Exactly the same mistakes are often found in healthy children at the initial stages of learning, but then quickly disappear [Ananiev BG, 1955]. With dysgraphia, they become persistent.

- partial disorder of the writing process associated with insufficient formation (or decay) of mental functions involved in the implementation and control writing. Dysgraphia is manifested by persistent, typical and repetitive writing errors that do not disappear on their own, without targeted training. Diagnosis of dysgraphia includes analysis of written works, examination of oral and written speech using a special technique. Corrective work to overcome dysgraphia requires the elimination of violations of sound pronunciation, the development of phonemic processes, vocabulary, grammar, coherent speech, non-speech functions.

ICD-10

R48.8 Other and unspecified disorders of recognition and understanding of symbols and signs

General information

Dysgraphia - specific shortcomings of writing caused by a violation of the HMF involved in the process of writing. According to studies, dysgraphia is detected in 53% of second grade students and 37-39% of middle school students, which indicates the stability of this form of speech impairment. The high prevalence of dysgraphia among schoolchildren is associated with the fact that about half of kindergarten graduates enter the first grade with FFN or OHP, in the presence of which the process of full literacy is impossible.

According to the severity of disorders of the writing process in speech therapy, dysgraphia and agraphia are distinguished. In dysgraphia, writing is distorted but continues to function as a means of communication. Agraphia is characterized by a primary inability to master writing skills, their complete loss. Since writing and reading are inextricably linked, a writing disorder (dysgraphia, agraphia) is usually accompanied by a reading disorder (dyslexia, alexia).

Causes of dysgraphia

Mastering the process of writing is closely related to the degree of formation of all aspects of oral speech: sound pronunciation, phonemic perception, lexical and grammatical side of speech, coherent speech. Therefore, the development of dysgraphia may be based on the same organic and functional causes that cause dyslalia, alalia, dysarthria, aphasia, delayed psychoverbal development.

Underdevelopment or damage to the brain in the prenatal, natal, postnatal periods can lead to the subsequent appearance of dysgraphia: pathology of pregnancy, birth trauma, asphyxia, meningitis and encephalitis, infections and severe somatic diseases that cause depletion of the child's nervous system.

Socio-psychological factors contributing to the occurrence of dysgraphia include bilingualism (bilingualism) in the family, fuzzy or incorrect speech of others, lack of speech contacts, inattention to the child’s speech by adults, unjustified early learning literate child in the absence of his psychological readiness. The risk group for the occurrence of dysgraphia is children with a constitutional predisposition, various speech disorders, mental retardation.

Dysgraphia or agraphia in adults is most often caused by traumatic brain injuries, strokes, brain tumors, and neurosurgical interventions.

Mechanisms of dysgraphia

Writing is a complex multi-level process, in the implementation of which various analyzers participate: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual, motor, carrying out the sequential translation of an article into a phoneme, a phoneme into a grapheme, a grapheme into a kineme. The key to successful mastery of writing is enough high level development of oral speech. However, unlike oral speech, written speech can develop only under the condition of purposeful learning.

In accordance with modern concepts, the pathogenesis of dysgraphia in children is associated with the untimely formation of the process of lateralization of brain functions, including the establishment of the cerebral hemisphere, which is dominant in controlling speech functions. Normally, these processes should be completed by the beginning of schooling. If lateralization is delayed and the child has latent left-handedness, cortical control over the writing process is disrupted. With dysgraphia, there is an unformed HMF (perception, memory, thinking), emotional-volitional sphere, visual analysis and synthesis, optical-spatial representations, phonemic processes, syllabic analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical side of speech.

From the point of view of psycholinguistics, the mechanisms of dysgraphia are considered as a violation of the operations of generating a written statement: intent and internal programming, lexico-grammatical structuring, dividing a sentence into words, phonemic analysis, correlation of a phoneme with a grapheme, motor implementation of writing under visual and kinesthetic control.

Dysgraphia classification

Depending on the lack of formation or violation of a particular operation of writing, 5 forms of dysgraphia are distinguished:

articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia associated with impaired articulation, sound pronunciation and phonemic perception;
acoustic dysgraphia associated with impaired phonemic recognition;
dysgraphia on the basis of unformed language analysis and synthesis;
agrammatic dysgraphia associated with underdevelopment of the lexical and grammatical side of speech;
optical dysgraphia associated with the lack of formation of visual-spatial representations.

Along with "pure" forms of dysgraphia, mixed forms are found in speech therapy practice.

The modern classification distinguishes:

I. Specific writing disorders:

1. Dysgraphia:

1.1. Dysphonological dysgraphia (parallic, phonemic).
1.2. Metalinguistic dysgraphia (dyspraxic or motor, dysgraphia due to impaired language operations).

2.1. Morphological dysorphography.
2.2. Syntactic dysorphographies.

II. Non-specific writing disorders associated with pedagogical neglect, ZPR, UO, etc.

Symptoms of dysgraphia

Signs that characterize dysgraphia include typical and persistent errors in writing that are not related to ignorance of the rules and norms of the language. Typical errors encountered when various types dysgraphia, can be manifested by mixing and replacing graphically similar handwritten letters (sh-sh, t-sh, v-d, m-l) or phonetically similar sounds in writing (b–p, d–t, g–k, w-zh ); distortion of the letter-syllabic structure of the word (omissions, permutations, addition of letters and syllables); violation of the unity and separation of the spelling of words; agrammatisms in writing (violation of inflection and agreement of words in a sentence). In addition, with dysgraphia, children write slowly, their handwriting is usually difficult to distinguish. There may be fluctuations in the height and slope of letters, slippage from the line, replacement of uppercase letters by lowercase letters and vice versa. One can speak about the presence of dysgraphia only after the child masters the technique of writing, that is, not earlier than 8–8.5 years.

In the case of articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia, specific errors in writing are associated with incorrect sound pronunciation (both pronouncing and writing). In this case, substitutions and omissions of letters in writing repeat the corresponding sound errors in oral speech. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia occurs with polymorphic dyslalia, rhinolalia, dysarthria (i.e., in children with phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment of speech).

With acoustic dysgraphia, sound pronunciation is not impaired, however, phonemic perception is not sufficiently formed. Errors in writing are in the nature of substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically similar sounds (whistling - hissing, voiced - deaf and vice versa, affricate - their components).

Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of linguistic analysis and synthesis is characterized by a violation of the division of words into syllables, and sentences into words. With this form of dysgraphia, the student skips, repeats or rearranges letters and syllables; writes extra letters in a word or does not finish the end of words; writes words with prepositions together, and with prefixes separately. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis is most common among schoolchildren.

Agrammatic dysgraphia is characterized by multiple agrammatisms in writing: incorrect change of words in cases, genders and numbers; violation of the agreement of words in a sentence; violation of prepositional constructions (incorrect sequence of words, omissions of sentence members, etc.). Agrammatic dysgraphia usually accompanies a general underdevelopment of speech due to alalia, dysarthria.

With optical dysgraphia, graphically similar letters are replaced or mixed in writing. If the recognition and reproduction of isolated letters is impaired, one speaks of literal optical dysgraphia; if the inscription of letters in a word is violated, - about verbal optical dysgraphia. To common mistakes encountered in optical dysgraphia include underwriting or adding elements of letters (l instead of m; x instead of w and vice versa), mirror writing of letters.

Quite often, with dysgraphia, non-verbal symptoms are detected: neurological disorders, decreased performance, distractibility, hyperactivity, memory loss, etc.

Diagnosis of dysgraphia

To identify the organic causes of dysgraphia, as well as to exclude visual and hearing defects that can lead to writing disorders, consultations of a neurologist (pediatric neurologist), ophthalmologist (children's oculist), otolaryngologist (children's ENT) are necessary. An examination of the level of formation of speech function is carried out by a speech therapist.

Forecast and prevention of dysgraphia

To overcome dysgraphia, the coordinated work of a speech therapist, teacher, neurologist, child and his parents (or an adult patient) is required. Since writing disorders do not disappear on their own in the process of schooling, children with dysgraphia should receive speech therapy help at the school speech center.

Prevention of dysgraphia should begin even before the child begins to learn to read and write. It is necessary to include in preventive work the purposeful development of HMF, which contribute to the normal mastery of the processes of writing and reading, sensory functions, spatial representations, auditory and visual differentiation, constructive praxis, and graphomotor skills. Timely correction of oral speech disorders, overcoming phonetic, phonetic-phonemic and general underdevelopment of speech is important.

A difficult problem is the issue of assessing the progress in the Russian language of children with dysgraphia. During the period of corrective work, it is advisable to carry out a joint check control works in the Russian language by a teacher and a speech therapist, highlighting specific dysgraphic errors that should not be taken into account when grading.

Dysgraphia in children is a specific difficulty in mastering the skills of writing, which most often accompanies the underdevelopment of oral speech in dyslalia, dysarthria, alalia, hearing loss, but can occur and manifest itself.

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Dysgraphia.

Agraphia and dysgraphia are various disorders of written speech that have arisen on the basis of incorrect or incomplete development of oral speech, violations of it, or as a result of lesions of specific mechanisms of writing, or, finally, due to other psychophysical disorders of the writer (poor attention, painful haste, poor memory for visual and sound images ....).

Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, in which persistent and recurring errors are observed: distortions and replacements of letters, distortions of the sound-syllabic structure of a word, violations of the spelling of individual words in a sentence, agrammatisms in writing.

I. N. Sadovnikova believes that, in relation to younger schoolchildren, it is more correct to speak not about violations, but about the difficulties of mastering written speech. The main symptom is the presence of persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which in students is not associated either with severe hearing and vision impairments, or with the irregularity of schooling.

According to G.V. Chirkina, writing disorders in children are special difficulties that are caused by systemic underdevelopment of certain aspects of the child’s speech activity, which in children who have reached school age, with normal mental abilities and hearing, are manifested, first of all, in the insufficient formation of ideas about the sound and morphological composition of the word.

O. B. Inshakova, L. I. Belyakova believe that writing disorders are a fairly common defect that occurs in students primary school comprehensive school and leads, as a rule. To persistent learning difficulties. Writing disorders may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that acted at different periods of the child's development. In addition, dysgraphia occurs with speech disorders (A. R. Luria, S. S. Lyapidevskaya, M. E. Khvattsev).

In the domestic literature, the concept of R. E. Levina is widespread, interpreting writing disorders as a manifestation of a systemic speech disorder, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links.

Often one of the causes of violations of the letter. There are difficulties in the formation of the laterization process (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs). Unformed in time, as well as cross-folding lateralitis reveals that the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres has not been established. This can lead to speech development disorders. In cases of delay in the process of laterization and in various forms of "conflict of dominance", cortical control over many types of activity is also difficult.

The symptomatology of dysgraphia is manifested in specific (not related to the use of spelling rules), persistent and repetitive errors in the writing process, the occurrence of which is not associated with impaired intellectual or sensory development of the child or with irregular schooling: distortion and replacement of letters; distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word; violations of the continuity of writing individual words in a sentence; agrammatisms in writing.

The writing errors are neither constant nor identical for a particular word. Such variability of violations shows. That none of the pathogenetic factors is decisive, but each is important in conjunction with others. It is impossible to find a universal explanation applicable to all cases of writing violations.

Dysgraphia can also be accompanied by non-speech symptoms (impaired cognitive activity, memory, attention, mental disorders). In these cases, non-speech symptoms are determined together with writing disorders and are included in the structure of neuropsychic and speech disorders (with dysarthria, alalia, speech disorders with mental retardation). At the same time, dysgraphia in children with normal intelligence can cause deviations in personality formation, certain mental stratifications. In children with dysgraphia, many higher mental functions are not formed: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory-pronunciation differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexical-grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, emotional - volitional sphere.

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.

M. E. Khvattsev identified 5 types of dysgraphia:

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. The mechanism, which, according to M. E. Khvattsev, is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, rearrangements, substitutions of letters, omissions of words, merging of two into one.

2. Dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm.

4. Optical dysgraphia.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia.

According to R. I. Lalayeva, the classification of M. E. Khvattsev does not satisfy the idea of writing disorders.

Tokareva O. A. identifies 3 types of dysgraphia:

1.Acoustic.

According to Tokareva O.A., it occurs with insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis, undifferentiated auditory perception. Mixing and omissions, substitutions of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflections of incorrect sound pronunciation, are frequent in writing.

2. Optical dysgraphia.

This dysgraphia, according to Tokareva O.A., is due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception at different moments, the letters are perceived differently and therefore are mixed in writing:p - n, p - i, y - i, c - u, w - i, m - l, b - d, p - t.

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. Pupils write only individual letters, a mirror letter is also possible (words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left).

3.Motor dysgraphia.

Motor dysgraphia is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

According to R. I. Lalayeva, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated, because. the process of writing is a complex form of speech activity, which includes a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor.

The most reasonable is the classification developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. A. I. Herzen (L. S. Volkova,

R. I. Lalaeva and others). The following types of dysgraphies are distinguished:

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. This dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech.

2. Dysgraphia based on phonemic recognition(differentiation of phonemes) or acoustic dysgraphia.

According to R. I. Lalayeva appears in substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often replaced: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and their constituent components (h - t, h - u, c - t, c - s). Errors appear in the letter: when denoting the softness of consonants(“lubit”, “lick”, “letter”); vowel substitutions, both stressed and unstressed (cloud - "tocha", forest - "fox").

In the most severe cases, letters are mixed that designate articulatory and acoustically distant sounds (l - k, b - c, p - n) with normal pronunciation of these sounds.

Tokareva O. A. believes that the basis for the replacement of letters denoting phonetically close sounds is the fuzziness of auditory perception, the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds.

R. I. Lalayeva believes that for correct writing a finer auditory differentiation of sounds is needed than for oral speech, because, on the one hand, the lack of auditory differentiation in oral speech can be compensated for by motor stereotypes and kinesthetic images fixed in speech experience. In the process of writing, in order to correctly distinguish and choose a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all acoustic features of sound that are meaningful is necessary. On the other hand, in the process of writing, the choice is made according to the representation, therefore, due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in the replacement of letters in writing. R. Becker considers the difficulties of kinesthetic analysis to be the main reasons for the replacement of letters denoting phonetically similar sounds. R. Becker's research shows that children with dysgraphia do not use enough kinesthetic sensations (pronunciation) while writing.

R. E. Levina and L. F. Spirova associate the substitution of letters in writing with phonemic underdevelopment, with unformed ideas about the phoneme, with a violation of the phoneme selection operation.

For correct writing, a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes is necessary. If any link (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control) is violated, the whole process of phonemic recognition becomes difficult, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in writing.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis.

This dysgraphia is based on a violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. This dysgraphia manifests itself in writing in distortions of the structure of words and sentences. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. Therefore, more often with this type of dysgraphia, there are distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word.

The most common errors are:

Omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation - "dictation");

Vowel omissions ( at home - "dma");

Permutation of letters (dragged - "dragged");

Omissions, additions, permutations of syllables (room - "cat", glass - "kata").

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia manifests itself: in the continuous spelling of words with other words, including prepositions (it's raining - "grandfather", in the house - "in the house»); separate spelling of the word (white birch grows by the window»); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (came - "stepped on").

For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic analysis be formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in the internal plan, according to the idea.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia.

According to R. E. Levina, R. I. Lalayeva, this dysgraphia is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech and can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence, text, and is integral part a wider symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and mentally retarded.

In coherent speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are violated.

At the level of sentences, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in:

Distortion of the morphological structure of the word, replacement of prefixes, suffixes (swept - "swept", kids - "goats");

Changing case endings("many trees");

Violation of prepositional constructions (above the table - "on the table");

Changing the case of pronouns (around him - "around him"). Noun number violation("children run") ; agreement violation ("beladom" ); violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, skipping members of a sentence, violating the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia.

This dysgraphia is associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and is manifested in the substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space ( c - e, t - w ); containing the same elements, but differing in additional elements (i - w, p - t, x - f, l - m); mirror spelling of letters; omissions of elements, especially when connecting letters that include the same element, superfluous and incorrectly located elements.

The etiological study of writing disorders is complicated by the fact that it is always retrospective, tk. the factors that caused these disorders may fade into the background by the time they enter school. Nevertheless, the analysis of literature data allows us to establish a number of causes that have arisen simultaneously or sequentially.

Violation of writing may be due to a delay in the formation of certain functional systems that are important for the development of written speech, due to hazards that operate at different periods of a child's development. In addition, dysgraphia occurs with organic speech disorders. R. E. Levina interprets a violation of writing as a manifestation of a systemic violation of speech, as a reflection of the underdevelopment of oral speech in all its links. I. N. Sadovnikova considers one of the reasons the difficulties in the formation of the process of lateralization (functional asymmetry in the activity of paired sensorimotor organs). Unformed in time, as well as cross-folding lateralitis reveals that the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres has not been established. This can lead to speech development disorders. Dysgraphia may be the result of a disorder that occurs in a vast area of praxis and gnosis, which provide the perception of space and time, because. the most important factor of dysgraphia is the difficulty of finding the starting point in space and time. And also in the analysis and reproduction of the exact and temporal sequence. Perhaps a combination of dysgraphia with mental deficiency, hearing or vision loss, bilingualism in the family, irregular schooling.

In the works of A. R. Luria and S. S. Lyapidevsky, the mechanisms of writing and reading are considered from the standpoint of modern neurophysiology. As we know from neurology, at the end of the 19th century, writing was viewed in a simplified way, as a purely motor process that easily relies on a narrowly limited area of \u200b\u200bthe cerebral cortex. O. A. Trkareva writes that the researchers of that time, along with the centers of visual functions, centers for auditory and motor speech, also spoke about a special "writing center" (the so-called Exner center - the middle part of the motor area of the left hemisphere). The mechanism of the reading process is undoubtedly dynamic, forming gradually. In the process of learning to read and write, automated writing and reading skills are developed. “At the basis of their formation,” writes S. S. Lyapidevsky, “is a chain of conditioned reflexes superimposed on each other, entering into an interconnection. Thus, the gradual formation of temporary connections (conditioned reflexes) creates certain dynamic stereotypes in the process of learning to read and write, which in the language of psychology is defined by the concept of “skill”.

The act of writing is carried out by the coordinated work of a number of physiological components. Participating in the organization of this process. Various analyzers take part in the processes of reading and writing: auditory, visual, motor, violation of any of them creates a deviation in the normal course of the specified act. The role of a full-fledged auditory analyzer in the act of writing is extremely important. For correct writing, the presence of a precisely differentiated phoneme and its strong connection with the letter is necessary. Difficulties in teaching writing and peculiar errors in writing among students of a mass school are often associated precisely with defects in acoustic analysis and synthesis.

The acoustic analyzer is closely related to the motor and speech-motor (kinesthetic) analyzer. The significance of the motor analyzer in various arbitrary acts is exceptionally important. According to S. S. Lyapidevsky, in children, underdevelopment or weakening of the activity of the motor analyzer may be accompanied by the development of pathological inertia in the formation of motor reflexes, which is also reflected in the formation of writing skills. However, writing is not a narrow-motor act associated only with the movement of the hand. Writing is a kind of verbal expression. According to R. E. Levina, a full-fledged sound analysis is necessary for correct writing. Sound analysis involves sufficient mastery of the sound composition of the word, its acticulation and perception. In the process of writing, the sound composition of the written off word needs to be clarified. This clarification is carried out by pronouncing the written word.

I. M. Sechenov wrote about the connection between the development of auditory perception. According to the author, auditory sensations have the advantage over others that they are already closely associated in early childhood with muscle movements in the chest, larynx, lips, i.e. with feelings in his own conversation. On this basis, auditory memory is also reinforced by tactile memory.

OA Tokareva believes that the process of writing is not limited to the analysis of the sound composition of the word. There are violations in the letter, due to the predominant defeat of the optical systems in the cerebral cortex (occipital-parietal region of the cortex of the left hemisphere). A. R. Luria noted that this nature of the disturbances is due to the fact that the occipital-parietal region of the cerebral cortex is the central apparatus that allows for the whole visual perception of a person, translating visual sensations into complex optical images. Preserve and differentiate visual representations and, ultimately, implement the most complex and generalized forms of visual and spatial cognition. In some cases, with this violation, writing is generally impossible, since such a patient loses the graphic image of the letters and cannot reproduce them.

The process of writing is not limited to the participation of the considered mechanisms. The unit of writing is not a designation of a sound or a letter, but a combination of successive sounds that make up a complex of syllables that form a whole word. It is the observance of the desired sequence of sounds, and then the letters that display patterns of sounds, combining them into sound complexes of syllables. Forming then a whole word, it is difficult for children during the initial formation of writing skills.

Writing disorders create significant barriers to literacy and lead to learning difficulties.

Traditionally, in speech therapy practice, written speech disorders are considered as a consequence of oral pathology (R.E. Levina, A.V. Yastrebova, L.F. Spirova, O.A. Tokareva, etc.). Recent studies indicate a close relationship between writing difficulties in younger schoolchildren and the lack of formation of non-verbal forms of mental processes (T.V. Akhutina, A.N. Kornev, and others). So, one of the components in the formation of writing skills is optical-spatial perception.

According to many experts, there is not a single type of activity of children that would not be influenced by spatial orientation. This is a complex activity that involves both the right and left hemispheres. Basic, early-forming functions are mainly associated with the work of the right hemisphere. Visual-motor coordination depends on it, the ability to correlate movement with vertical and horizontal coordinates, combine parts and remember their location. The left hemisphere solves more complex tasks related to subtle analysis and speech mediation. It analyzes details, parts and is not so successful in putting them together.

Dysgraphia is a partial specific violation of the writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is to convey meaning or fix it. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual.

One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To write a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the first grade. In the first series, they are offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. The analysis and comparison of a letter is not an easy task for a first grader.

Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient level of formation of certain speech and non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, the formation of the lexico-grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.

The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing normally.

The following terms are mainly used to denote writing disorders: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia.

The causes of reading and writing disorders are similar.

In children with dysgraphia, there is a lack of formation of many higher mental functions: visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, auditory differentiation of speech sounds, phonemic, syllabic analysis and synthesis, division of sentences into words, lexical and grammatical structure of speech, memory disorders, attention, successive and simulative processes, emotional-volitional sphere.

Classification of dysgraphia is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.

O.A. Tokareva distinguishes 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

With acoustic dysgraphia, there is a lack of differentiation in auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Mixings and omissions, replacement of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing are common.

Optical dysgraphia is due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most commonly observed mixtures of the following handwritten letters:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only single letters. In some cases, especially for left-handed people, there is a mirror letter, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated.

Selected by M.E. Khvattsev's types of dysgraphia also do not satisfy today's understanding of writing disorders. Consider them

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. In this form, the write-off is preserved.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.

This type is based on the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia on the basis of disorders of oral speech ("graphic tongue-tied tongue"). According to M.E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds by others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M.E. Khvattsev also singles out a special form due to the “experienced” tongue-tied tongue (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of learning to read and write or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the coarser and more varied the writing errors. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M.E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a pronunciation rhythm disorder, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions in the sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disturbed. With literal dysgraphia, the visual image of a letter is disturbed in a child, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is safe, but the visual image of the word is hardly formed, the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: p - k, p. - i, s - o, i - w, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia manifests itself in substitutions, distortions in the structure of words, sentences and is caused by the decay of oral speech due to organic brain damage.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphia are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition (differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is in many ways similar to the one identified by M.E. Khvattsev with dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on the incorrect pronunciation of sounds in the process of pronunciation, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

2. Dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition (differentiation of phonemes). According to traditional terminology, this is acoustic dysgraphia.

It manifests itself in the substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters are replaced that denote the following sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and their components (h - t, h - u, c - t, c - s). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“writing”, “lubit”, “licking”). Frequent mistakes are vowel substitutions even in a stressed position, for example, o - y (tuma - "tocha"), e - and (forest - "foxes").

In the most striking form, dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition is observed with sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters are mixed, denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds (l - k, b - c, p - k). At the same time, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters is normal.

There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. This is due to the complexity of the process of phonemic recognition.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It is based on the violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: the division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of linguistic analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of the word and sentence. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. As a result, distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word will be especially common in this type of dysgraphia.

The following errors are most characteristic: omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation - "dikat", school - "cola"); omissions of vowels (dog - "dog", at home - "dma"); permutations of letters (path - “prota”, window - “kono”); adding letters (drag - "drag"); omissions, additions, permutation of syllables (room - “cat”, glass - “kata”).

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining - “godaddy”, in the house - “in the house”); separate spelling of the word (a white birch grows by the window - “belabe will grow an eye”); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (stepped - “stepped on”).

Writing disorders due to the lack of formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R.E. Levina, N.A. Nikashina, D.I. Orlova, G.V. Chirkina.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia (characterized in the works of R.E. Levina, I.K. Kolpovskaya, R.I. Lalayeva, S.B. Yakovlev). It is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence and text and is an integral part of a wider symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and in mentally retarded children.

In coherent written speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are violated.

At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in the distortion of the morphological structure of the word, the replacement of prefixes, suffixes (swept - “swept”, kids - “goats”); changing case endings (“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions (above the table - “on the table”); changing the case of pronouns (near him - “near him”); number of nouns ("children are running"); violation of agreement (“white house”); there is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, skipping members of a sentence, and violating the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space

With literary dysgraphia, there is a violation of recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. With verbal dysgraphia, isolated letters are reproduced correctly, however, when writing a word, distortions and replacements of letters of an optical nature are observed. Optical dysgraphia also includes mirror writing, which is sometimes noted in left-handers, as well as in organic brain lesions.

Anatomical and physiological basis of writing. Written speech is a means of communication between people using certain graphic signs that reflect oral speech, thoughts, fixing them in time and being a way of transmitting them at a distance. Writing is made possible by the complication labor activity human as a result of the emergence of a second signaling system. It (writing) is a complex conditioned-reflex process, mainly carried out with the help of speech-motor, speech-sensory, visual, motor analyzers. External regulatory mechanisms of written speech are located in the left hemisphere. The muscular complex of writing movements is carried out with the help of efferent systems (pyramidal, pallidar-pyramidal, cerebellar) and peripheral nerves. Violation of these analyzers and efferent systems leads to various manifestations of writing disorders, which are mainly revealed in two forms: 1. analytical-synthetic, and 2. change in handwriting.

Agraphia. Analytical-synthetic writing disorders are commonly observed in adults suffering from various forms of aphasia and are referred to as agraphia. The latter is mainly characterized by the following symptom complex:

[1 ] literal, syllabic, verbal paragraphs (permutation of letters, syllables, etc.);
[2 ] the disintegration of the construction of letters into constituent elements without the possibility of synthesizing them;
[3 ] the preservation of the spelling of individual letters, a meaningless set of letters when writing words and sentences;
[4 ] optical-spatial agraphia;
[5 ] mirror letter;
[6 ] violation of writing by stereotyped repetitions of the same letters and numbers.

Agraphia observed in sensory aphasia is characterized by the fact that the patient, who can write off the test and sign (i.e., motor stereotypes are preserved), has gross violations of the written reproduction of the dictation test, as well as independent writing. Quite often such patients cannot qualify the heard sound.

If the patient has the phenomena of “jargonophasia”, then it manifests itself in the written presentation of thoughts: the patient writes in jargon that is incomprehensible to those around him. Often, perseverations are found in the written text (once having applied the designation for an object, the patient gets stuck on it, using it inadequately in subsequent sentences) [slang Greek. aphasia - loss of speech, dumbness - a manifestation of sensory aphasia in the form of logorrhea and multiple literal, verbal paraphasias, which makes the speech of patients incomprehensible to themselves or to the people around them;].

Agraphia in motor aphasia is manifested in the distortion of the spelling of words, namely in the sequence of syllables (paragraph). At the same time, sentences to patients are constructed grammatically incorrectly.

Lesions of the occipital or occipital-parietal region can be detected in the visual form of agraphia: a distortion of the descriptive image (size and shape) of written characters due to a violation of the correct perception of space. The handwriting of such patients is characterized by the uneven size of the letters, their angularity, and the unstable direction of the line.

With damage to the parietal or parietal-occipital region of the left hemisphere ( fields 39 and 40) mirror writing can sometimes be observed.

Violation of writing in the defeat of analyzers and intercalary efferent systems. Violation of the motor analyzer (for example, damage to the posterior columns), which manifests itself in the form of the disappearance of information from the muscle-articular receptors of the right hand, also causes a disorder in the coordination of movements. The handwriting is characterized by an inconsistent slope and size of letters, the absence of straight long strokes, which usually refract in several places. The patient cannot accurately draw a straight line.

The defeat of the palidar-nigral system (parkinson's syndrome) is also accompanied by changes in handwriting, which becomes small (micrography). Trembling causes the rhythmic sinuosity of the strokes. Pi chorea early symptom of the disease may be a change in handwriting, which becomes sloppy, erratic, sharply tactful.

Damage to the cerebellopontine systems, manifested by motor ataxia of the limbs and intentional trembling, significantly changes the handwriting: there is a break and tortuosity of the strokes of the letters, which become uneven in size (sometimes too large, sometimes too small). Sometimes such patients cannot put an end - it turns out a dash.

Source:"Practical work on neurology" G.V. Arkhangelsk; Publishing house "Medicine", Moscow, 1967.

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