There are several definitions of international trade. But two of them reflect the essence of this concept best of all:
- In a broad sense, MT is a system international relations in the sphere of the exchange of goods and services, as well as raw materials and capital, which consists in the conduct of foreign trade operations by one country with other states (import and export) and is regulated by accepted international norms.
- In a narrow sense, this is the total trade turnover of all world states or only a part of countries united on a certain basis.
Clearly, without MT, countries would be limited to consuming those goods and services that are produced exclusively within their own borders. Therefore, participation in world trade brings states the following "advantages":
- Through export earnings, the country accumulates capital, which can then be directed to industrial development domestic market;
- the growth of export supplies entails the need to create new places for workers, which leads to greater employment;
- international competition leads to progress, i.e. causes the need to improve production, equipment, technologies;
Each individual state, as a rule, has its own specialization. So, in certain countries, agricultural production is especially developed, in others - mechanical engineering, in still others - food industry. Therefore, MT makes it possible not to create an overabundance of produced domestic goods, but to exchange them (or money from their sale) for another desired products importing countries.
MT Forms
Trade and financial relations between states are in constant dynamics. Therefore, in addition to the usual trading operations, when the moments of purchase and payment for goods coincide, there are also modern forms of MT:
- tenders (auctions) are, in fact, international competitions to attract foreign companies for execution production work, provision of engineering services, training of employees of enterprises, as well as tenders for the purchase of equipment, etc.
- leasing - when production equipment is leased to users of other states for a long-term lease;
- exchange trade - trade transactions are concluded between countries on commodity exchanges;
- countertrade - when, in international trade transactions, instead of paying in money, the delivery of products of the buyer state should be made;
- license trade - the sale of licenses to countries for the use of trademarks, inventions, industrial innovations;
- auction trade - a method of selling goods with individual valuable properties in the form of public auction, which is preceded by a preliminary inspection.
MT regulation
MT regulation can be divided into state (tariff and non-tariff) and regulation through international agreements.
Tariff methods are, in fact, the application of duties levied on the transport of goods across the border. They are established in order to restrict imports and therefore reduce competition from foreign manufacturers. Export duties are used less often. Non-tariff methods, for example, include quotas or licensing.
Of particular importance to the MoT are international agreements and regulatory organizations such as the GAAT and the WTO. They define the fundamental principles and rules of international trade, which each participating country must adhere to.
22. International trade, its dynamics and main indicators.
International trade is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade is a form of communication between commodity producers different countries arising on the basis of the international division of labor and expresses their mutual dependence. It consists of exports and imports of goods. The basis of trade is international specialization. To characterize both international trade and foreign trade, indicators are used:
Goods turnover;
commodity structure;
Geographic configuration;
Foreign trade turnover value is the sum of exports and imports. Foreign trade balance- this is a table where export revenues are written on credit, and import expenses on debit. Accordingly, a balance is formed, which can be active or passive.
The dynamics of trade is the growth rate of world trade, which is increasing due to technological progress and the mass production of science-intensive products.
Foreign trade in its structure consists of trade in finished products (including machinery, equipment, etc.), raw materials and materials, and agricultural products. In the 19th century, the main commodity flows were raw materials - as a result of trade with the colonies. In the 20th century there was a radical change in the structure of world trade. The volumes of trade in raw materials, materials and agricultural products are beginning to decline, while trade in finished products is increasing.
The geographical configuration of international trade is characterized by asymmetry - the share of industrialized countries in world exports over the past 30 years has been 70-75%, developing countries - about 20% of world trade, and former socialist countries - about 10%.
The indicators reflecting the country's participation in international trade are the export and import quota - showing the share of exports and imports in GDP. The export quota is calculated as the ratio of exports of goods and services to GDP and shows what share of all products produced in the country are sold on the world market. The import quota is calculated as the ratio of imports to the volume of domestic consumption of the country, which includes the totality of national production and import stocks, and shows what is the share of imported goods and services in domestic consumption.
23. The essence of international trade policy, the role of GATT / WTO in the regulation of international trade.
Despite the liberalization of modern foreign economic activity, a significant role in the development of foreign trade and its regulation is retained by the states that pursue an appropriate foreign trade policy. Foreign trade policy is the activity of the state aimed at the development and regulation of trade relations with other countries of the world.
In addition to the foreign trade policy of the state, the foreign trade policy of other subjects of international economic relations (various unions and groupings) is also carried out. However, the role of states in the field of foreign trade policy remains essential. At the same time, the foreign trade policy of the state is closely interconnected with domestic economic policy.
The foreign trade policy of the state consists of its strategy and a set of specific methods and means of its implementation.
The strategy of foreign trade policy consists, first of all, in determining its goals and solving the main issues for the development and regulation of foreign trade. Therefore, in many countries, appropriate legislative acts related both to general issues of the country's position in the world economy and politics, and to more specific issues of foreign trade policy.
The main task of the foreign trade policy of any sovereign is to provide favorable conditions for the effective operation of domestic business in the field of foreign trade.
Foreign trade policy is an integral part of the foreign policy of the state as such. Therefore, it is no coincidence that some countries of the world, especially the leading developed countries with a market economy, often use a wide arsenal of their own political means of influencing countries that act as real or potential competitors in the international economic arena.
Varieties of foreign trade policy: 1. protectionism; 2. liberalization.
Protectionism acts as a foreign trade policy of the state, aimed at protecting the domestic market from foreign competition, and often at deploying and supporting the activities of domestic businesses in foreign markets.
Liberalization, on the contrary, involves the removal of all kinds of barriers that impede the development of foreign trade.
Protectionism and liberalization in their pure form act as certain extremes of foreign trade policy, but in practice, as a rule, a certain combined, compromise version of this policy is implemented, combining elements of protectionism and liberalization.
Number of measures state regulation foreign trade is constantly growing, since all new products of various spheres of economic activity are involved in international exchange. This implies the use of a wider range of means and instruments that can effectively protect the national economy from the negative impact of external factors.
Instruments (methods) of state regulation of foreign trade are divided into tariff and non-tariff ones. Such a classification was first proposed by the GATT Secretariat (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) in the late 60s. 20th century This agreement defined non-tariff restrictions (NTRs) as "any action, other than tariffs, that impedes the free flow of international trade."
To date, a unified international classification of non-tariff instruments of state regulation of foreign trade has not yet been developed and agreed upon. There are classifications of the GATT/WTO, the International Chamber of Commerce, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), individual scientists.
UNCTAD classification of non-tariff methods of foreign trade regulation: 1. para-tariff methods; 2. price controls; 3. financial measures; 4. measures of quantitative control; 5. automatic licensing measures; 6. monopolistic measures; 7. technical measures.
Thus, UNCTAD uses only eight main measures of tariff and non-tariff state regulation of foreign trade.
Tariff methods manifest themselves in the form of import and (to a lesser extent) export duties.
Essential for their consideration is the concept of import customs tariff (ITT). ITT components: 1. a systematic list of imported goods; 2. methods for determining the customs value of imported goods; 3. mechanism for introducing or canceling duties; 4. rules for determining the country of origin of goods; 5. powers of executive authorities.
ITT is based on legislative acts and customs codes adopted in various countries.
Active part of ITT - rates customs duties, which are in essence a kind of tax on the right to import foreign goods. Depending on the direction of movement of goods, duties are import, export, transit.
Types of duties: 1. ad valorem; 2. specific; 3. combined.
The most common ad valorem duties in international trade are set as a percentage of the value of the goods crossing the customs border. In this regard, the method of estimating the cost of imported goods acquires significant significance. Currently, its application in many countries is regulated by the Agreement on the Valuation of Goods for Customs Purposes, concluded under the GATT
An important place in the system of import customs tariffs is given to the rules for determining the country of origin of goods, since import duties are differentiated for different groups of countries. At the same time, the base rates are the rates of import duties applied to goods imported from countries in respect of which the importing country has the most favored nation treatment. Its essence lies in the fact that a country that applies the most favored nation treatment, in the event of a reduction in import duties in relation to a third country, should automatically reduce duties on the same goods and to the same level as for this third country.
Organizational and technical aspect studies physical exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies (states). The main attention is paid to the problems associated with the purchase (sale) of specific goods, their movement between counterparties (seller - buyer) and crossing state borders, with settlements, etc. These aspects of MT are studied by specific special (applied) disciplines - organization and technique of foreign trade operations, customs, international financial and credit operations, international law(its various branches), accounting, etc.
Organizational and market aspect defines MT as combination of world demand and world supply, which materialize in two counter flows of goods and (or) services - world export (export) and world import (import). At the same time, the world supply is understood as the volume of production of goods that consumers are ready to collectively purchase at the existing price level inside and outside the country, and the aggregate supply is understood as the volume of production of goods that producers are ready to offer on the market at the existing price level. They are usually considered only in value terms. The problems that arise in this case are mainly related to the study of the state of the market for specific goods (the ratio of supply and demand on it - the conjuncture), the optimal organization of commodity flows between countries, taking into account a wide variety of factors, but above all the price factor.
These problems are studied by international marketing and management, theories of international trade and the world market, international monetary and financial relations.
Socio-economic aspect considers MT as a special type socio-economic relations arising between states in the process and about the exchange of goods and services. These relationships have a number of features that make them particularly important in the world economy.
First of all, it should be noted that they are global in nature, since all states and all their economic groupings are involved in them; they are an integrator, uniting national economies into a single world economy and internationalizing it, based on the international division of labor (MRI). MT determines what is more profitable for the state to produce and under what conditions to exchange the produced product. Thus, it contributes to the expansion and deepening of the MRT, and hence the MT, involving more and more states in them. These relations are objective and universal, i.e. they exist independently of the will of one (group) person and are suitable for any state. They are able to systematize the world economy, placing the states depending on the development of foreign trade (BT) in it, on the share that it (BT) occupies in international trade, on the size of the average per capita foreign trade turnover. On this basis, "small" countries are distinguished - those that cannot influence the change in the price of MR if they change their demand for any product and, conversely, "large" countries. Small countries, in order to make up for this weakness in this or that market, often unite (integrate) and present aggregate demand and aggregate supply. But large countries can also unite, thus strengthening their position in the MT.
Characteristics of international trade
A number of indicators are used to characterize international trade:
- cost and physical volume of world trade;
- general, commodity and geographical (spatial) structure;
- the level of specialization and industrialization of exports;
- coefficients of elasticity of MT, exports and imports, terms of trade;
- foreign trade, export and import quotas;
- trade balance.
World trade
World trade turnover is the sum of foreign trade turnover of all countries. Foreign trade turnover of the country- this is the sum of exports and imports of one country with all countries with which it is in foreign trade relations.
Since all countries import and export goods and services, world trade also defined as sum of world exports and world imports.
State world trade is estimated by its volume for a certain time period or on a certain date, and development- the dynamics of these volumes for a certain period.
The volume is measured in value and physical terms, respectively, in US dollars and in physical terms (tons, meters, barrels, etc., if it is applied to a homogeneous group of goods), or in conventional physical terms, if the goods do not have a single natural measurement . To assess the physical volume, the value volume is divided by the average world price.
To assess the dynamics of world trade, chain, basic and average annual growth rates (indices) are used.
MT structure
The structure of world trade shows ratio in its total volume of certain parts, depending on the chosen feature.
General structure reflects the ratio of exports and imports as a percentage or in shares. In physical volume, this ratio is equal to 1, and in total, the share of imports is always greater than the share of exports. This is due to the fact that exports are valued at FOB (Free on board) prices, according to which the seller pays only for the delivery of goods to the port and its loading on board the ship; imports are valued at CIF prices (cost, insurance, freight, i.e., they include the cost of goods, the cost of freight, insurance costs and other port fees).
Commodity structure world trade shows the share of a particular group in its total volume. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the MT a product is considered as a product that satisfies some social need, to which two main market forces are directed - supply and demand, and one of them necessarily acts from abroad.
Goods produced in national economies participate in MT in different ways. Some of them don't participate at all. Therefore, all goods are divided into tradable and non-tradable.
Tradable goods are freely movable between countries, non-tradable goods do not move between countries for one reason or another (uncompetitive, strategically important for the country, etc.). When talking about the commodity structure of world trade, we are talking only about tradable goods.
In the most general proportion in world trade, trade in goods and services is singled out. Currently, the ratio between them is 4:1.
In world practice, various classification systems for goods and services are used. For example, trade in goods uses the Standard International Trade Classification (UN) - SITC, in which 3118 main commodity items are combined into 1033 subgroups (of which 2805 items are included in 720 subgroups), which are aggregated into 261 groups, 67 departments and 10 sections. Most countries use the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (including the Russian Federation since 1991).
When characterizing the commodity structure of world trade, there are most often two large groups goods: raw materials and finished products, the ratio between which (in percent) was 20: 77 (3% other). For individual groups of countries, it varies from 15: 82 (for developed countries with market economies) (3% others) to 45: 55 (for developing countries). For individual countries (foreign trade turnover), the range of variations is even wider. This ratio may change depending on changes in the prices of raw materials, especially energy.
For more detailed characteristics product structure, a diversified approach can be used (within the framework of the SMTK or in other frameworks in accordance with the objectives of the analysis).
To characterize world exports, it is important to calculate the share of engineering products in its total volume. Comparing it with a similar indicator of the country allows us to calculate the index of industrialization of its exports (I), which can be in the range from 0 to 1. The closer it is to 1, the more the trends in the development of the country's economy coincide with the trends in the development of the world economy.
Geographic (spatial) structure world trade is characterized by its distribution along the lines of commodity flows - the totality of goods (in physical terms) moving between countries.
Distinguish between commodity flows between countries with developed market economies (SRRE). They are commonly referred to as "West-West" or "North-North". They account for about 60% of world trade; between SRRE and RS, which stand for "West-South" or "North-South", they account for over 30% of world trade; between RS - "South - South" - about 10%.
In the spatial structure, one should also distinguish between regional, integration and intra-corporate turnover. These are parts of the world trade turnover, reflecting its concentration within one region (for example, Southeast Asia), one integration grouping (for example, the EU) or one corporation (for example, any TNC). Each of them is characterized by its general, commodity and geographical structure and reflects the trends and degree of internationalization and globalization of the world economy.
MT Specialization
To assess the degree of specialization of world trade, the index of specialization (T) is calculated. It shows the share of intra-industry trade (exchange of parts, assemblies, semi-finished products, finished items of one industry, for example, cars different brands, models) in the total volume of world trade. Its value is always in the range 0-1; the closer it is to 1, the deeper the international division of labor (MRI) in the world, the greater the role of the intra-industry division of labor in it. Naturally, its value will depend on how broadly the industry is defined: the wider it is, the higher the T coefficient.
A special place in the complex of indicators of world trade is occupied by those that allow us to assess the impact of world trade on the world economy. These include, first of all, the coefficient of elasticity of world trade. It is calculated as the ratio of the growth rates of physical volumes of GDP (GNP) and trade. Its economic content lies in the fact that it shows by how many percent the GDP (GNP) increased with an increase in trade turnover by 1%. The global economy is characterized by a tendency to strengthen the role of MT. For example, in 1951-1970. the coefficient of elasticity was 1.64; in 1971-1975 and 1976-1980 - 1.3; in 1981-1985 - 1.12; in 1987-1989 - 1.72; in 1986-1992 - 2.37. As a rule, during periods economic crises the coefficient of elasticity is lower than during recessions and booms.
Terms of trade
Terms of trade is a coefficient that establishes a relationship between the average world prices of exports and imports, since it is calculated as the ratio of their indices for a certain period of time. Its value varies from 0 to + ¥: if it is equal to 1, then the terms of trade are stable and maintain the parity of export and import prices. If the ratio increases (compared to the previous period), then the terms of trade are improving and vice versa.
MT elasticity coefficients
Elasticity of imports— an index that characterizes the change in aggregate demand for imports resulting from changes in the terms of trade. It is calculated as a percentage of import volumes and its price. In its numerical value, it is always greater than zero and changes to
+ ¥. If its value is less than 1, then a 1% price increase led to an increase in demand by more than 1%, and therefore, the demand for imports is elastic. If the coefficient is more than 1, then the demand for imports has grown by less than 1%, which means that imports are inelastic. Therefore, an improvement in the terms of trade forces a country to increase its spending on imports if demand is elastic, and to decrease it if it is inelastic, while increasing spending on exports.
Export elasticity and imports is also closely related to the terms of trade. With the elasticity of imports equal to 1 (a 1% drop in the price of imports led to an increase in its volume by 1%), the supply (export) of goods increases by 1%. This means that the elasticity of exports (Ex) will be equal to the elasticity of imports (Eim) minus 1, or Ex = Eim - 1. Thus, the higher the elasticity of imports, the more developed the market mechanism that allows producers to respond faster to changes in world prices. Low elasticity is fraught with serious economic problems for the country, if this is not due to other reasons: high investments made earlier in the industry, the inability to quickly reorient, etc.
These elasticity indicators can be used to characterize international trade, but they are more effective for characterizing foreign trade. This also applies to such indicators as foreign trade, export and import quotas.
MT quotas
The foreign trade quota (FTC) is defined as half the sum (S/2) of exports (E) and imports (I) of a country, divided by GDP or GNP and multiplied by 100%. It characterizes the average dependence on the world market, its openness to the world economy.
Analysis of the significance of exports for the country is estimated by the export quota - the ratio of the amount of exports to GDP (GNP), multiplied by 100%; The import quota is calculated as the ratio of imports to GDP (GNP) multiplied by 100%.
The growth of the export quota indicates the growth of its importance for the development of the country's economy, but this significance itself can be both positive and negative. It is certainly positive if exports expand. finished products, but the growth of exports of raw materials, as a rule, leads to a deterioration in the terms of trade for the exporting country. If, at the same time, exports are mono-commodity, then its growth can lead to the destruction of the economy, therefore such growth is called destructive. The result of this growth in exports is the lack of funds for its further increase, and the deterioration of the terms of trade in terms of profitability does not allow acquiring the necessary amount of imports for export earnings.
Trade balance
The resulting indicator characterizing the country's foreign trade is the trade balance, which is the difference between the sum of exports and imports. If this difference is positive (which is what all countries strive for), then the balance is active; if it is negative, it is passive. The balance of trade is an integral part of payment balance country and largely determines the latter.
Modern trends in the development of international trade in goods and services
The development of modern MT occurs under the influence of general processes taking place in the world economy. Economic recession affecting all groups of countries, Mexican and Asian financial crises, the increase in the size of internal and external imbalances in many states, including developed ones, could not but cause uneven development of international trade, a slowdown in its growth in the 1990s. At the beginning of the XXI century. the growth rate of world trade increased, and in 2000-2005. it increased by 41.9%.
The world market is characterized by trends associated with the further internationalization of the world economy and its globalization. They are manifested in the growing role of MT in the development of the world economy, and foreign trade in the development of national economies. The first is confirmed by the increase in the elasticity coefficient of world trade (more than twice as compared to the mid-1980s), and the second is the growth of export and import quotas for most countries.
"Openness", "interdependence" of economies, "integration" are becoming key concepts for the world economy and international trade. In many ways, this happened under the influence of TNCs, which really became the centers of coordination and engines of the world exchange of goods and services. Within themselves and among themselves, they have created a network of relationships that go beyond the borders of states. As a result, about 1/3 of all imports and up to 3/5 of trade in machinery and equipment falls on intracorporate trade and is an exchange of intermediate products (component products). The consequence of this process is the barterization of international trade and the growth of other types of countertrade transactions, which already account for up to 30% of all international trade. This part of the world market is losing its purely commercial features and is turning into so-called quasi-trade. It is served by specialized intermediary firms, banking and financial institutions. At the same time, the nature of competition in the world market and the structure of competitive factors are changing. The development of economic and social infrastructure, the presence of a competent bureaucracy, a strong educational system, a sustainable policy of macroeconomic stabilization, quality, design, style of product design, timely delivery, and after-sales service are put forward in the foreground. As a result, there is a clear stratification of countries on the basis of technological leadership in the world market. Good luck accompanies those countries that have new competitive advantages, i.e., are technological leaders. They are a minority in the world, but they get most of the FDI, which enhances their technological leadership and competitiveness in the IR.
Significant shifts are taking place in the commodity structure of the MT: the share of finished goods has increased and the share of food and raw materials (without fuel) has decreased. This happened as a result of the further development of scientific and technical progress, which increasingly replaces natural raw materials with synthetic ones, and allows the implementation of resource-saving technologies in production. At the same time, trade in mineral fuels (especially oil) and gas has grown sharply. This is due to a complex of factors, including the development of the chemical industry, changes in the fuel and energy balance and an unprecedented increase in oil prices, which at the end of the decade, compared to its beginning, more than doubled.
The share of science-intensive goods and high-tech products (microtechnical, chemical, pharmaceutical, aerospace, etc. products) is growing in the trade in finished goods. This is especially clearly manifested in the exchange between developed countries - technological leaders. For example, in the foreign trade of the USA, Switzerland and Japan, the share of such products accounts for over 20%, Germany and France - about 15%.
The geographical structure of international trade has also changed quite noticeably, although the “West-West” sector, which accounts for about 70% of world trade, is still decisive for its development, and within this sector a dozen (USA, Germany, Japan, France, UK, Italy, Netherlands, Canada, Switzerland, Sweden).
At the same time, trade between developed countries and developing countries is growing more dynamically. This is due to a whole range of factors, not least of which is the disappearance of a whole cluster of countries in transition. According to the UNCTAD classification, all of them have moved into the category of developing countries (except for 8 CEE countries that joined the EU on May 1, 2004). UNCTAD estimates that MS was the driving force behind the development of MT in the 1990s. They remain so at the beginning of the 21st century. This is due to the fact that although the markets of the RS are less capacious than the markets of the RSEM, they are more dynamic and therefore more attractive for their developed partners, especially for TNCs. At the same time, the purely agrarian and raw material specialization of most RSs is supplemented by the transfer to them of functions for supplying industrial centers with material-intensive and labor-intensive products of manufacturing industries based on the use of cheaper labor. Often these are the most environmentally polluted industries. TNCs contribute to the growth of the share of finished products in the export of the RS, however, the commodity structure of trade in this sector remains predominantly raw materials (by 70-80%), which makes it very vulnerable to price fluctuations in the world market and worsening terms of trade.
There are a number of very acute problems in the trade of developing countries, arising primarily from the fact that price remains the main factor in their competitiveness, and the terms of trade that change not in their favor inevitably lead to an increase in its imbalance and less intensive growth. Eliminating these problems involves optimizing the commodity structure of foreign trade based on diversification industrial production, the elimination of the technological backwardness of countries, which makes their exports of finished products uncompetitive, and the increase in the activity of countries in trade in services.
Modern MT is characterized by a trend towards the development of trade in services, especially business services (engineering, consulting, leasing, factoring, franchising, etc.). If in 1970 the volume of world exports of all services (including all types of international and transit transport, foreign tourism, banking services, etc.) amounted to 80 billion dollars, then in 2005 it was about 2.2 trillion. dollars, i.e., almost 28 times more.
At the same time, the growth rate of exports of services is slowing down and significantly lags behind the growth rates of exports of goods. So, if for 1996-2005. the average annual export of goods and services almost doubled compared to the previous decade, then in 2001-2005. The increase in exports of goods on average per year was 3.38%, and services - 2.1%. As a result, the indicator of the share of services in the total volume of world trade is stagnating: in 1996 it was 20%, in 2000 - 19.6%, in 2005 - 20.1%. The leading positions in this trade in services are occupied by the RSEM, they account for about 80% of the total volume of international trade in services, which is due to their technological leadership.
The global market for goods and services is characterized by trends associated with the further internationalization of the world economy. In addition to the growing role of MT in the development of the world economy, the transformation of foreign trade into an integral part of the national reproduction process, there is a clear trend towards its further liberalization. This is confirmed not only by the decrease in the average level of customs duties, but also by the elimination (easing) of quantitative restrictions on imports, the expansion of trade in services, the change in the nature of the world market itself, which now receives not so much surpluses of national production of goods as pre-agreed supplies of goods produced specifically for a particular consumer. goods.
TOPIC 2. INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Place of international trade in the IEO. The world market of goods and services and features of its development in modern conditions. Indicators of the scale, structure, dynamics and performance of international trade. Evolution of theories of international trade.
Types of international trade. Trade in goods and services. Traditional trade, trade in products within the framework of cooperation, counter trade. Trade in scientific and technical products and services.
Methods of international trade. Trade directly and through intermediaries. Exchange trading, international auctions and tenders.
Pricing in international trade. Tariff and non-tariff regulation of international trade and economic relations. World Trade Organization (WTO). Ukraine in the world market of goods and services.
The essence of international trade and its role in the system of world economic relations
Foreign trade (BT) is an important and historically the first form of international economic relations. It represents the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies. This is the trade of one country with other countries of the world. It consists of import (import) and export (export) of goods. Together, the foreign trade of different countries forms international trade.
International trade in services
All areas of international cooperation require advanced services, which is a continuation and development of modern production.
The main difference between trade in services and trade in goods is that services do not tend to accumulate. The volume of the services market is approximately 25% of world commodity circulation, and the growth rate of this sector of the world economy significantly exceeds the growth rate of world commodity circulation. Also, trade in services affects the employment of the population of the national economy to a much greater extent than the commodity market.
The specific features of international trade in services can be defined as follows:
the place of production and consumption of services coincides - the export of services necessarily implies their production abroad;
close connection of the service market with the market of goods, capital and labor;
degree of concentration in the market modern services much more than in the market of goods;
the national service sector is more strongly protected;
A number of services are practically not included in the international turnover.
international market services consists of: freight services; others transport services; tourism; other services provided by state organizations (banking, insurance, exchange, intermediary, technology export, etc.); other services by the private sector.
Tourism and transport services play a major role in international trade in services.
The assessment of a country's development is often reduced to an assessment of the profitability of the service sector. There are countries in which the service sector provides up to 60% of GDP and more. For example, in the USA - 67%, in France - 63%, in Japan - 56%, in England - 56.5%, in Germany - 58%, in Italy - 56%. The financial and credit sphere is the leading one for all developed countries. The movement of capital and its maintenance is always in the first place. According to this indicator, three centers are distinguished: the USA, Japan, Western Europe.
International Trade Indicators
International trade is characterized by a large number of indicators that can be systematized according to the following criteria:
a) volume indicators;
b) indicators of the structure;
c) indicators of dynamics;
d) performance indicators.
Rice. 2.1. Show
international trade agents
MT volume indicators:
1) export is the sale of goods and services abroad. Exports include:
Goods produced, grown or mined in the country;
Goods previously imported from abroad have been processed, as well as goods that have been processed under customs control.
Re-export- sale and export from the country of goods previously imported into its territory that have not been processed.
2) import- importation of goods and services into the country.
Imports include:
Goods of foreign origin from the country of origin or the country of intermediary;
Goods for further processing under customs control.
Reimport- import of goods previously exported abroad that have not been processed, i.e. These are export operations that did not take place. This includes the return by the buyer of defective goods, the return of goods that were not sold through an auction, the return of goods that were not sold through consignment warehouses. The main sign of re-import operations is the crossing of customs by domestic goods twice: when importing and exporting. Goods returned from exhibitions and fairs are not re-imported.
Exports and imports are calculated by each country in physical and cost terms. Cost indicators are calculated in national currency and converted into US dollars for international comparison. A small group of countries, especially countries with high inflation, calculate export and import destinations in US dollars.
3) foreign trade turnover is the sum of the value of a country's exports and imports over a given period of time
WTO \u003d E + I
4) the physical volume of trade- assessment of exports or imports at constant prices of one period (usually a year);
5) general(general) trade- the definition of foreign trade turnover adopted in foreign trade statistics with the inclusion of goods in transit;
6) special trade- net foreign trade turnover, that is, products imported into the country or exported from it
ST = WTO - re-export - re-import
Structure indicators :
1) commodity structure- these are indicators of the distribution of exports and imports by main commodity items;
2) geographical structure- distribution of commodity flow by countries, groups of countries and regions of the world;
3) institutional trading- distribution of trade by subjects and methods of commodity exchange;
4) species structure- distribution of trade by types of commodity exchange.
Dynamic indicators:
1) Growth rate:
Tr \u003d Y2 / Y1 x 100%, where Y1 is the initial level of the value, Y2 is the final level.
2) Growth rates:
T pr. \u003d Tr.o. / Tr.b. х 100%, where Тр.о. - the growth rate of the indicator for the reporting period, Тр.b. - the growth rate of the indicator for the base period.
Results indicators:
1) trade balance- is the difference between the value of exports and imports of goods of a particular country;
2) balance of services is the difference between the value of the services a country provides and the value of the services it imports;
3) balance of non-commercial operations- this is the difference between income from investments, remittances, deposits, transfer of funds by inheritance, when solving family problems. For each of these areas of cash flow, a balance is drawn up;
4) current account balance- this is the sum of the trade balance, balance of services, non-commercial operations;
5) index "terms of trade"- the ratio of the index of average export prices of a certain product, the country as a whole, a group of countries to the index of average import prices for a certain period of time.
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Russian Federation
Ministry of Agriculture
federal state budgetary educational institution higher professional education
Orel State Agrarian University
Department of "World Economy"
ON THE WORLD ECONOMY
"Dynamics and structure of international trade"
Performed
student of group BM-213
Granny Alexandra
Checked
Trishkina E.S.
Introduction
Conclusion
Introduction
International trade is historically and logically the first form of world economic relations in the world economy. And, despite the fact that in modern conditions the leading form of international economic relations is not the export of goods, but foreign investment, it accounts for 4/5 of the total volume of world economic relations. This is due, firstly, to its great importance for the development of national economies and, secondly, to its place in the system of international economic relations. Therefore, this topic is extremely relevant today.
1. Definition and general characteristics of international trade
dynamics structure international trade
International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations for the exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers from different countries.
Foreign trade-the exchange of a country with other countries, including paid export (export) and import (import) of goods and services. The term "foreign trade" is used to analyze the foreign trade turnover of a particular country.
To characterize both international trade and foreign trade, indicators are used:
General turnover;
commodity structure;
geographic structure.
Foreign trade turnover-the sum of the value of exports and imports of a country.
The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time at current prices of the respective years using current exchange rates.
The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated in constant prices and allows you to make the necessary comparisons and determine its real dynamics.
World trade turnover is calculated by summing up only the volumes of exports of all states, traditionally expressed in US dollars.
Accounting for export deliveries is carried out in the prices of ROV (free on board - free on board), which include all costs associated with the delivery of goods to the side of the ship and its passage over the ship's rail at the port of shipment.
Accounting for import deliveries is carried out in CIF prices (cost, insurance, freight - cost, insurance, freight), including the cost of goods, as well as the cost of cargo insurance in transit and its transportation (sea freight) to the port of destination.
2. Main forms of international trade
The main forms of international trade are the export and import of goods.
Depending on the origin and destination of the goods, exports are of the following types:
1) export of goods manufactured (produced and processed) in the given country;
2) export of raw materials and semi-finished products for processing abroad under customs control with subsequent return;
3) re-export - the export of goods previously imported from abroad, including goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc.;
4) temporary export abroad of national goods (to exhibitions, fairs, etc.) with subsequent return or export of previously imported foreign goods (to auctions, exhibitions, fairs, etc.);
5) export of products in the order of direct production relations, as well as deliveries within the framework of TNCs.
Classification of imports on the same basis includes the following types:
1) import from abroad of goods, technologies for sale on the importer's domestic market, as well as receiving paid services from a foreign counterparty for industrial and consumer purposes;
2) re-import - return import from abroad of national goods previously imported there;
3) import of raw materials, semi-finished products, assemblies, parts for processing in a given country and subsequent export abroad;
4) temporary importation of goods to international exhibitions, fairs, auctions;
5) import of products in the order of direct production relations and within the framework of TNCs.
The indicators reflecting the country's participation in international trade are export and import quotas.
The export quota is calculated as the ratio of exports of goods and services to GDP and shows what share of all products produced in the country are sold on the world market.
The import quota is calculated as the ratio of imports to the volume of domestic consumption of the country, which includes the totality of national production and import stocks, and shows what is the share of imported goods and services in domestic consumption.
To characterize the terms of trade of an individual country, group of countries or region in world trade, the terms of trade index is used, which expresses the ratio of the average export price index to the average import price index.
3. International trade in the system of international economic relations. Basic concepts of international trade
The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade. According to some estimates, trade accounts for about 80 percent of the total volume of international economic relations. Modern international economic relations, characterized by the active development of world trade, bring a lot of new and specific to the process of development of national economies.
For any country, the role of foreign trade can hardly be overestimated. According to J. Sachs, "... the economic success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. No country has yet been able to create a healthy economy, isolated from the world economic system."
International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.
Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade.
International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production also slows down.
The choice of the policy of free trade (free trade) or protectionism in foreign trade, in their uncompromising version, was characteristic of the past centuries. Nowadays, these two approaches are interconnected and intertwined. But to an ever greater extent, the leading role of the principle of free trade is manifested in this contradictory unity.
For the first time, the policy of free trade was defined by A. Smith when he substantiated the "theory of comparative advantages" (production costs). A. Smith proved the necessity and importance of foreign trade, emphasizing that "the exchange is favorable for each country; each country finds an absolute advantage in it." A. Smith's analysis was the starting point of the classical theory, which serves as the basis for all types of free trade policies.
However, if we continue A. Smith's reasoning to the end, we can come to the conclusion: if a particular country can find everything it needs abroad, at a lower price and without restrictions, then it is in its interests to acquire all the necessary goods abroad. And will it itself produce something for sale on the world market? Nothing guarantees this. But then, at the expense of what income will the country pay for its purchases? The theory of absolute advantage leads to a dead end.
D. Ricardo in his "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817) brings the classical theory out of a logical impasse. It shows why nations trade, to what extent exchange between two countries is most beneficial, highlighting the criteria for international specialization. It is in the interests of each country, D. Ricardo believes, to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness, and for which the relative benefit is the greatest. His reasoning found expression in the so-called principle or theory of comparative advantage.
D. Ricardo proved that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries. He determined the price zone within which the exchange is beneficial for everyone.
John Stuart Mill, in his "Principles of Political Economy" (1848), showed the price at which commodity exchange takes place. According to Mill: the price of exchange is set by the law of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of each country's exports pays for the aggregate of its imports. This law of international value, or "theory of international value," is an important merit of Mill. The theory of international value shows that there is a price that optimizes the exchange of goods between countries. This market price depends on supply and demand.
A new word in the development of the theory of the classics of bourgeois political economy was said by Gottfried Haberler, who concretized it from the point of view of all factors of production, and not just labor.
The foundations of modern ideas about what causes determine the direction and structure of international trade flows, the possible advantages in international exchange were laid by Swedish scientists - economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Olin. Their explanation of the comparative advantage that a country has in relation to certain products is at the level of endowment with factors of production. Heckscher and Ohlin put forward the "equalization of factor prices" theorem. Its essence is that national production differences are determined by different endowment with factors of production - labor, land, capital, as well as different internal needs for certain goods, their prices.
In 1948, the American economists Paul Samuelson and W. Stolper improved the proof of the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem by presenting their theorem: in the case of the homogeneity of production factors, the identity of technology, perfect competition and full mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. In the concepts of trade based on the Ricardian model with additions by Heckscher, Ohlin and Samuelson, trade is seen not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means by which the development gap between countries can be reduced.
The theory of foreign trade was further developed in the work of the American economist W. Leontiev under the title "Leontiev's paradox". The paradox is that, using the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Leontief showed that the American economy in the postwar period specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital. In other words, US exports are more labor-intensive and less capital-intensive than imports. This conclusion contradicted all pre-existing ideas about the US economy. By all accounts, it has always been characterized by an excess of capital, and in accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, it could be argued that the United States exports rather than imports highly capital-intensive goods. In subsequent years, the discovery of V. Leontiev received a wide response. Many economists from different countries discussed this topic, explaining the "Leontief paradox". As a result, the theory of comparative advantage has been further developed.
A prominent place in foreign concepts of international trade is occupied by the theory of the foreign trade multiplier. In accordance with this theory: the effect exerted by foreign trade (in particular, exports) on the dynamics of growth of national income, on the size of employment, consumption and investment activity, is characterized for each country by quite definite quantitative dependencies and can be calculated and expressed as a certain coefficient - multiplier (multiplier). Initially, export orders will directly increase output, and hence wages in the industries fulfilling this order. And then secondary consumer spending will kick in.
Significant changes taking place in the system of the world economy and international relations in the post-war period led to the emergence of a number of factors that, at first glance, did not fit into the classical theory of comparative advantage. However, in reality, these new factors did not contradict or refute it, but only adequately reflected the new realities of international economic relations related to development. scientific and technological progress. Factors of comparative advantage began to include new components, such as: the level of competence, emphasizing the role of skilled labor; the difference between countries in wages, the impact of economies of scale in the parallel complication of its process, etc.
A special role of competition in explaining the reasons for the development of foreign trade, the entry of firms into the foreign market was shown in his studies by the authoritative American economist Michael Porter. The competitiveness of a country, in accordance with his evidence, is determined primarily by a complex competitive advantage its leading firms.
To substantiate the causes and features of the development of international trade, especially with developing countries, the theory of the "life cycle of a product" was used. The essence of this theory is that at first the production of new goods is based in one country, then these goods are exported to other countries that master their production. And already the countries that have established the production of these goods for the first time begin to import them from there, as a result life cycle goods lengthens and this affects the position of countries in international trade.
In addition to the theories that aim to explain and justify the processes of international trade from the standpoint of the theory of comparative advantage, Western economic thought is developing a direction that analyzes foreign trade from the standpoint of the behavior of individual international companies, primarily transnational companies (TNCs). The objective basis of this approach is the fact that 1/3 of world trade is carried out through transfer prices, i.e. prices at which a product is transferred within an intercountry branch network large companies. According to V. B. Buglay and N. N. Liventsev, intracompany communications account for about 70% of all world trade, 80-90% of sold licenses and patents, and 40% of capital exports. The ever-increasing role of TNCs in the global economy has a significant impact on quality characteristics trade exchange. The actions of an international monopoly in the process of direct investment or procurement and supply of raw materials and components often contradict the theory of comparative advantage. Multinational companies break the monopoly of individual countries on the possession of comparative advantages. They organize production where the cost of production is the lowest, and use these advantages to their advantage.
4. Features of the dynamics and changes in the territorial and commodity structure of international trade
Since the second half of the 20th century, when international exchange, according to M. Pebro's definition, acquires an "explosive character", world trade is developing at a high pace. In the period 1950-1998. world exports grew 16 times. According to Western experts, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be characterized as a "golden age" in the development of international trade. It was during this period that an annual 7% growth in world exports was achieved. However, already in the 70s it dropped to 5%, decreasing even more in the 80s. In the late 1980s, world exports showed a noticeable recovery (up to 8.5% in 1988). After a clear decline in the early 1990s, in the mid-1990s it again demonstrates high and stable rates - an average of 6% per year.
The stable, sustainable growth of international trade was influenced by a number of factors:
Development of the international division of labor and the internationalization of production and capital;
Scientific and technological revolution", contributing to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones; regulation (liberalization) of international trade through GATT-WTO measures;
Liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to a regime that includes the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of "free economic zones";
Active activity of transnational corporations in the world market;
Development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation common markets, free trade zones;
Obtaining political independence of the former colonial countries. Separation from among them "new industrial countries" with an economy model oriented to the external market.
Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has become noticeable. This affected the balance of power between countries in the world market. The dominance of the United States was shaken. The export of Germany and other Western European countries grew at a noticeable pace. In the 1990s, Western Europe was the main center of international trade. Its exports are almost 4 times higher than those of the United States. In the 1980s, Japan made a significant breakthrough in international trade.
By the mid-1990s, the United States was once again taking a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness.
According to experts' forecasts, in the first years of the 21st century, the United States and Asian states will be the most competitive. In 2030, three states are expected to be among the most competitive states - the USA, Japan and China. Next in this long-term forecast are Germany, Singapore, South Korea, India, Taiwan, Malaysia and Switzerland, as well as countries grouped under the heading "big new markets". These are Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, the countries of South Africa, Turkey, Poland, and also Russia.
5. Sectoral structure of world trade
The most dynamic and intensively developing sector of world trade is trade in manufacturing products, especially high-tech goods. Yes, export science-intensive products is more than 500 billion dollars a year, and the share of high-tech products is approaching 40% in the exports of industrialized countries.
Significantly increased the role of trade in machinery and equipment. The fastest growing exports of electrical and electronic equipment, which accounts for more than 25% of all exports of engineering products
In connection with the increase in world exports of machinery and equipment (the leaders here are industrialized countries), the exchange of relevant services has also grown sharply: scientific, technical, industrial, commercial, financial and credit. Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as: engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services.
In general, world exports of services in the 1980s show a noticeable growth, which slowed down somewhat in the mid-1990s. The development of the world economy is largely determined by the growth of trade in services - transport, financial, tourism.
Characterizing the sectoral structure of world trade in the first half of the 20th century (before World War II) and in subsequent decades, we see significant changes. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for only 1/4. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And, finally, more than 1/3 of all world trade by the end of the 90s is the trade in machinery and equipment.
Conclusion
Thus, in this essay, the main issues related to international trade, its dynamics and structure were considered.
The very term of international trade was defined, its main characteristics were given, and its main forms and concepts were determined. The issue of the dynamics of international trade and the process of changing its territorial-commodity and sectoral structure were highlighted.
Bibliography
Avdokushin E.F. "International Economic Relations"
Sergeev P.V. "World economy"
Fomichev V.I. "International trade"
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