Benefits are material values for which it is directed. Fundamentals of the theory of the value of economic goods. Methods of moral stimulation

08.03.2020

Karl Menger (1840–1921), professor of political economy at the University of Vienna, was the first to develop this position among the representatives of the Austrian school. In 1871, Menger published the book "Fundamentals of Political Economy", the purpose of the study is human needs, which are considered as unsatisfied desires or discomfort caused by a violation of the physiological balance of a person. He defended the following point of view: price analysis should be reduced to the analysis of individual valuations.

Menger introduced the concept economic and non-economic good. Economic goods are goods for which there is a shortage of supply, and non-economic goods are goods for which there is equality between supply and demand. Trying to resolve the paradox of A. Smith about water and diamond (to explain why diamond is so expensive and water is cheap, without resorting to labor theory cost), Menger formulated principle of diminishing utility:the cost (value) of any good is determined by the smallest utility possessed by the last unit of the stock. At the same time, when determining the value of material goods, not the scale of the types of needs, but the scale of the specific needs of this particular person should be taken as a basis. As supply increases, the value of an additional unit decreases.

To illustrate this provision, it is appropriate to cite a table, which is called the “Menger table” (Table 4), where the vertical rows marked with Roman numerals denote different kinds needs and their importance in descending order: I - the most important type of needs, for example, in food; V - the type of needs of medium importance, for example, the need for alcoholic beverages; X is the least important type of needs. Arabic numerals within each vertical row illustrate the decrease in the need for a given need as it is saturated in descending order from 10 to 1. It can be seen that a specific need of a more important type may be lower than individual specific needs of a less important type. For example, the eighth unit of the first type of needs will be of less value (or lesser significance) for the well-being of the subject than the first unit of the seventh type of needs. The decrease in the value of goods as their number increased, the representatives of the Austrian school associated with deeply rooted human nature when the same kind of sensations, repeating incessantly, begin to give us less and less pleasure, and finally this pleasure even turns into its opposite - into unpleasantness and disgust. Thus, in the theory of value of the Austrian school, utility can also represent a negative value.

Table 4

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X

Menger's table reflects both of Gossen's laws: decreasing numbers in columns means a decrease in marginal utility (the first law), and a unit of good in satisfying each of the actually satisfied needs (I and II) has the same marginal utility.

This formulation of the law of diminishing marginal utility. But how does this provision relate to the concept of pricing? In the most direct way. The value (price) of a thing is measured by the value of the marginal utility of this thing, the utility of the last unit of the stock of the good that satisfies the least important need. It is appropriate to give an example of Robinson, who has five sacks of grain in reserve, of which the first is needed in order not to die of hunger, the second is for maintaining health, the third is for fattening poultry, the fourth is for preparing alcoholic beverages, the fifth is for parrot content. What determines the value of one (any) bag of grain? According to the views of the representatives of the Austrian school, the usefulness of the last bag that satisfies the least urgent need. This marginal unit (utility) determines the actual value of the previous units. Marginal utility, in turn, depends on the amount of goods and the intensity of consumption of the individual. Thus, the value depends on the degree of utility and degree of rarity. The first defines the highest point to which marginal utility can rise in a pinch; the second is to what point marginal utility actually rises in a particular case. In other words, the height of marginal utility is determined by two factors: subjective (needs) and objective (number of goods), which, in the framework of the reasoning of the Austrian school, remains once and for all the same data.

The doctrine of exchange. Differences in the relative subjective value of the same goods for different people is, according to Menger, the cause of the exchange. The exchange of good X for good Y will occur only when individual A values X more than Y, and individual B does the opposite. The exchange will continue until the relative values of goods for both individuals are equalized. Subjective values determine the exchange ratio of goods.

However, all arguments about subjective value cannot explain the mechanism of market pricing, where, despite all the variety of subjective assessments, there is a single price for a product.

Consider Menger's pricing theory, he is presented in Table. 5, where the rows determine the value of the (newly received) additional unit of the good, and the columns determine the value of the unit of goods (the first, second, etc.) for each consumer (B1, B2, ... B8).

Table 5

	I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII
IN 1
IN 2
AT 3
AT 4
AT 5
AT 6
AT 7
AT 8

Landowner B1 does not have a horse, but there is plenty of bread, so for him the value of the first horse is 80 measures of bread, landowner B2 estimates the value of the first horse at 70 measures of bread.

An attempt to resolve this contradiction was also made by E. Böhm-Bawerk (1851 - 1919), introducing the concept objective value by which he understands exchange proportions (prices), which are formed in the course of competition in the market.

The pricing process is carried out under the following conditions: the volume of supply on the market is fixed; the market price is established precisely in this act of competition, and does not depend on previously existing prices; the price is set in accordance with the ratio of the maximum prices of buyers and the minimum prices of sellers; the minimum prices of buyers and the maximum prices of sellers are derived from the ratio of subjective utility; transactions should be beneficial for both buyers and sellers. Therefore, none of them will buy (or sell) a horse at a price equal to his own assessment; equilibrium in the market is achieved when demand equals supply (the number of buyers is equal to the number of sellers).

How, under these conditions, will the price of a horse be determined? The Böhm-Bawerk pricing process is best explained using his already textbook example of the horse market. So, buyers and sellers collide in the market, having subjective assessments as to how useful the horse is to him (Table 6).

Table 6

Buyers	Sellers	Subjective assessment, florins
1=th	1=th
2=th	2=th
3=th	3=th
4=th	4=th
5=th	5=th
6=th	6=th
7=th	7=th
8=th	8=th
9=th
10=th

Let's assume that the auction will begin with the announcement of its price by buyers - 130 florins. This price is beneficial to all buyers. But she obviously does not suit the sellers - only the first two are ready to sell horses at this price. There is an imbalance between supply and demand, so buyers flare up competition to increase prices, which will inevitably lead to the elimination of individual buyers from the market and the return of sellers.

As a result of this process (suppose) the price settles at just over 200 florins, leaving the market with six buyers and five sellers. The circle has narrowed, but demand is still greater than supply. The price rises further and at the price of 210 florins the sixth buyer will leave the market.

Demand equals supply. But sellers, in their natural desire to get more profit, increase the price by holding the horses. The price rises, but as soon as it exceeds 215 florins, a sixth seller enters the market and the equilibrium is again disturbed.

So the price is known. She settled ranging from 210 to 215 florins inclusive. At this price, the demand for horses and their supply are balanced. Therefore, according to Böhm-Bawerk, the market price will fluctuate between the maximum and minimum price as a result of a collision in the markets of subjective assessments of sellers and buyers. At the same time, the level of the market price cannot be higher than the estimate of the first excluded seller (upper price limit) and lower than the estimate of the first excluded buyer (lower price limit), since otherwise the achieved equilibrium is violated.

This pricing scheme ignores: the role of labor; production costs, the only figure economic system becomes a consumer. The theory of marginal utility, proposed by representatives of the Austrian school, has the following disadvantages: absolute inelasticity of supply. Since supply is a fixed value, the value of a particular good (good) depends solely on demand, which changes depending on the marginal utility of this good. Consequently, the principle of marginal utility, developed by representatives of the Austrian school, is applicable only to the analysis of individual consumption in kind, since the seller, the owner of the commodity and its producer, is guided in determining the price by the principle of marginal utility, selling on the market only surplus benefits: the mechanism for equalizing the marginal utility in the process of exchange occurs under the assumption of the available price and the given incomes of the consumer. This means that the subjective assessments themselves are determined by the level of price and the amount of income, and outside the price system there is no quantification utility.

According to the Austrian school, the only factor determining the proportions of the exchange of goods and, accordingly, the price, is their marginal utility. Consequently, productive (capital) goods have no value, since they do not directly satisfy human needs, i.e., they do not have direct utility. In a real economy, productive goods have a value, and their prices form the cost of production. How is the problem of production costs solved within the framework of the ideas of the Austrian school?

In economics, the theory of production costs, like the theory of value, exists in two versions: the theory of objective costs; theory of subjective costs.

Recognition of the objective nature of costs is characteristic of the classical school, where the prices of factors of production were derived from natural rates of remuneration, and their levels were determined by separate theories. Ground rent was defined as a differential surplus in excess of marginal cost cultivation, wages were the long-term cost of the worker's livelihood, and profit was a residual. Within the framework of the classical school, the reality of production costs was not questioned. Representatives of the Austrian school announced that real costs are nothing more than an ancient delusion, and one of the representatives of the Austrian school, F. Wieser (1851–1926), developed a subjective theory of costs. The initial assumptions of this theory are two provisions.

First position says that productive goods are future, potential goods, their value is derivative and depends on the value of the final product that brings immediate satisfaction. Consequently, it is not the costs of production that give value to the products, but, on the contrary, the costs of production acquire value from their products. Consumption goods themselves give value to those productive resources or factors involved in their production.

Second position boils down to the assertion that the offer is reverse side demand - the demand of those who possess the goods. When enough low prices manufacturers themselves will show demand for their products.

In our example about the horse market, if the market price is lower than the utility value of a horse by a particular seller, he will take it away from the market, since he estimates its utility in his household higher. Costs are nothing more than the necessary payment for the diversion of resources from other uses, as prices offered for the services of factors used for its production by other competing producers.

In this theory, costs are nothing more than a form in which an individual is informed of the "desirability" of the possession of a thing by some other person. But what is the mechanism of formation of the value of productive goods? Having singled out the smallest marginal utility from the sum of consumer goods that are created by a certain production good, Wieser called it the marginal product. Using this concept, Wieser formulated the law: the marginal utility of the marginal product determines the price of the productive good that went into its production, and the corresponding part of the production costs, which determine the marginal utilities of other, non-marginal consumer products produced from the specified good (the so-called Wieser's law).

4.3. Anglo–American School of Economics

In the theory of production costs of the Austrian school, within the framework of the concept of opportunity costs, the value of productive goods was equated with the value of the goods sacrificed to them, bringing direct satisfaction. However, the question remained open as to how much of their value should be attributed to this or that factor of production.

Recall that the representatives of the classical school believed that all factors of production (labor, capital, land) participate equally in the process of value creation and receive their share of the created product.

The problem was solved by the American economist J.B. Clark (1847-1938) in The Distribution of Wealth (1899). He formulated the law of diminishing marginal productivity. The law says that in conditions where at least one factor of production remains unchanged, the additional increment of other factors gives a smaller and smaller increase in production. In other words, the marginal product of the variable factor is constantly decreasing.

Based on the law of diminishing marginal productivity, Clark concludes that with a constant amount of capital, each additional worker produces less output than previously adopted. The productivity of the last worker is called the marginal productivity of labor. According to Clarke, only the product that is created by the marginal worker can be considered a product of labor, while the rest of the product, that is, the difference between the "product of industry" and the "product of labor", is a product of capital.

Fundamental to Clarke's theory is the assertion that marginal product in monetary form determines the fair, natural level of income paid to each factor of production. Natural, fair level wages workers in our example will coincide with the price of the marginal product produced by the last worker, i.e., with the price of eight units of output. If we accept Clarke's assumption that wages are determined by the marginal productivity of labor (the marginal productivity of the last worker), then it is easy to explain the extremely low wages in developing countries, because in conditions of an excess supply of labor in relation to the total capital of society, the marginal product of the last unit of social labor will tend to to a minimum. However, Clark extends the statement about the reward of a factor in accordance with the value of its marginal product to other factors of production. In particular, in his theory, the value of interest as a product of capital is determined by the unit of capital that gives the smallest increase in production. Other things being equal, diminishing marginal productivity, the greater the value of the total capital of the company, the lower the interest rate. According to Clarke, if there are no barriers to competition, wages, interest, and rent will be the prices of factors of production that are equal in magnitude to their marginal product, or to their marginal productivity.

Note that in Clark's model of pricing for factors of production, for the first time after the classics of political economy, the process of production and distribution have a single basis - the marginal product of factors.

Material incentives are a complex of various kinds of material benefits received or appropriated by personnel for an individual or group contribution to the results of an organization's activities through professional labor, creative activity and required rules of conduct.

Consequently, the concept of material incentives includes all types of cash payments that are used in the organization, and all forms of material non-monetary incentives. To date, the following types of direct and indirect material payments are used in domestic and foreign practice: salary, bonuses, bonuses, profit sharing, additional payments, deferred payments, equity participation (Fig. 8.6).

The central role in the system of material incentives for labor belongs to wages. It remains the main source of income for the vast majority of workers, which means that wages will continue to be the most powerful stimulus for improving the results of labor and production as a whole.

Rice. 8.6. Structure of material incentives

The essence of wages is revealed through a number of its main aspects:

1) wages are the price of labor power, corresponding to the cost of consumer goods and services that ensure the reproduction of labor power, satisfying the material and spiritual needs of the employee and his family members;

2) wages are part of the income of an employee, the form economic realization ownership rights to the labor resource belonging to him;

3) wages - this is the share of net output (income) of the enterprise, depending on the final results of the enterprise and distributed between them in accordance with the quantity and quality of labor expended, real labor contribution.

The regulation of staff remuneration requires it relevant organization, on the one hand, providing guaranteed earnings for the fulfillment of the labor norm, regardless of the results of the enterprise, and on the other hand, linking earnings with individual and collective labor results. The organization of wages at the enterprise is understood as the construction of a system for its differentiation and regulation by categories of personnel, depending on the complexity of the work performed, as well as individual and collective labor results, while ensuring guaranteed earnings for the fulfillment of the labor norm.

An effective organization of remuneration involves the observance of certain principles (Fig. 8.7), which serve as economic guidelines in the material incentives for workers, in the organization of remuneration.

The elements of the organization of remuneration at the enterprise include labor rationing, conditions of remuneration, forms and systems of remuneration (Fig. 8.8).

Labor rationing is a mechanism for establishing the necessary quantitative result labor activity(or labor). They can be the norms of costs and results of labor, the workload and the number of employees, the duration of working hours, the duration of the production cycle, etc. Labor rationing allows you to determine how much labor costs should correspond to the established amount of its payment in specific organizational and technical conditions. The labor norm determines the amount and structure of labor costs required to perform this work, and is the standard with which to compare

Rice. 8.7. Basic principles of the organization of wages in a market economy

actual labor costs are measured in order to establish their rationality. The most widely used norms are time, production, maintenance, number, manageability, standardized tasks.

The terms of remuneration depend on the quality of work and working conditions. These include a billing system, various options for a tariff-free assessment of the complexity of labor and the qualifications of performers (analytical scoring activities, jobs; certification of employees; qualification levels; labor cost coefficients, etc.). As additional tools, you can use incentive and compensatory surcharges and allowances that take into account

Rice. 8.8. Elements of the organization of remuneration

differences in working conditions, its intensity, modes, natural and climatic conditions, etc.

The regulation of labor and the conditions of remuneration are only the basis for establishing the amount of wages. For their practical use, a clear algorithm is needed for the dependence of wages on labor standards and indicators characterizing the quantity and quality of labor expended. This dependence is reflected through the forms and systems of remuneration.

In the organization of remuneration at the enterprise, wage systems are designed to provide accounting for quantitative and quality results labor in determining the amount of earnings and the material interest of employees in improving the results of work and the results of activities of an enterprise (institution, organization).

All remuneration systems, depending on which main indicator is used to determine the results of labor, are usually divided into two large groups, called piecework and time-based forms of remuneration (Fig. 8.9).

The time-based form of remuneration assumes that the amount of an employee's earnings is determined on the basis of the time actually worked and the established tariff rate(salary).

With a piece-rate form of remuneration, wages are accrued to the employee based on the amount of actually manufactured

Rice. 8.9. Forms and systems of remuneration

products (the amount of work performed) or the time spent on its manufacture.

Piece-time (mixed) systems of labor work include elements of both piece-rate and time-based forms. These include Taylor systems; Bart Merrick; Gann ta; Atkinson; Halsey.

The choice of one or another form of remuneration is determined by the characteristics technological process, the nature of the means of labor used and the forms of its organization, as well as the requirements for the quality of products or work performed.

Comprehensive consideration of these conditions can only be carried out directly at the enterprise. Therefore, the choice of forms and systems of remuneration is the competence of the enterprise.

As practice shows, the most effective in certain working conditions that form of remuneration that contributes to the growth of output, improvement of the quality of products (services), reduction of their cost and obtaining additional profit, ensuring the most complete combination of the interests of employees with the interests of the enterprise team and the employer.

To the base part of the salary can be set R> - fees and allowances, which are integral part development of wage conditions. Their use is due to the need to take into account, when paying, the additional labor costs of employees, which are of a fairly constant nature and are associated with the specifics certain types labor and areas of its application, and in this regard is aimed at creating the interest of employees in increasing additional labor costs and compensation for these costs by the employer.

Currently, more than 50 types of additional payments and allowances are used in the country's economy. Surcharges and allowances are divided into those guaranteed by labor legislation (mandatory for use) and optional, determined by local regulations (regulations on wages, collective agreement, staff regulations, etc.).

The most important direction of material monetary incentives is bonuses. The bonus stimulates special improved results of work, and its source is the fund financial incentives. The main characteristic of the premium as an economic category is the form of distribution according to the result of labor, which is personal labor income, i.e. the premium belongs to the category of incentive systems.

The premium is unstable, its value may be greater or less, it may not be accrued at all. This feature is very important, and if the premium loses it, then with it the meaning of the bonus as a material incentive is lost. The use of bonuses as a powerful incentive tool should ensure a prompt response to changing conditions and specific production tasks.

Along with material monetary incentives, there are also those that are of material value, but in real terms are presented in the form of special benefits and compensations - the so-called benefits, which together form a social package. Benefits and compensations can be either guaranteed by the state or voluntarily provided by the enterprise to its employees.

The structure of material non-monetary incentives includes several groups of incentives, the purpose and composition of which are presented in Table. 8.2.

Benefits and compensations are a special form of employee participation in the economic success of the enterprise. AT modern economy the success of the organization is not only profit maximization, but also social Security employee, development of his personality. In this regard, we can highlight a number of tasks that the organization seeks to solve by voluntarily providing its employees with benefits and compensation:

Aligning the goals and needs of employees with the goals of the organization;

Development of a special psychology among employees when they identify themselves with their organization;

Increasing productivity, efficiency and quality of work and the readiness of employees to work effectively for the benefit of the organization;

Social protection of employees for over high level than provided by law;

Creation of a positive microclimate in the labor collective;

Formation of a positive public opinion about the organization as an employer and strengthening its positive image among employees.

The system of material incentives is organically complemented by non-material incentives.

Table 8.2. Material non-monetary incentives

Groups of material non-monetary incentives	Purpose	Compound
Complementary working conditions	Providing the means of labor required at the workplace / position, not provided for in the regulations for the equipment of the workplace	Full or partial payment for cellular communication; Provision of transport or payment of transport costs; Portable personal computer; Payment of hospitality expenses
Social	Freeing up employee time to improve the efficiency of working time	Delivery of employees (to/from work); Non-state pension provision; Compensation for the cost of children's holidays; Compulsory medical insurance; Providing material assistance; Compensation (full or partial) for the cost of meals and catering; Compensation (full or partial) for the cost of sports
Image	Increasing the status of an employee within the company and outside it	Provision of a company car for trips to business meetings, negotiations, business trips, etc.; Catering in a separate room for senior management; Ordering light snacks, drinks at the workplace; Additional health insurance under the extended program (dentistry, hospitalization, planned surgeries); Additional medical insurance for family members; Organization and payment of expensive holidays; Full reimbursement of fitness club membership costs
Individual	Attracting/retaining valuable professionals	Provision of consumer loans / guarantee to the bank for urgent needs; Provision of loans/guarantee to the bank for the purchase of housing; Tuition payment; Provision of vouchers to resorts and holiday homes; Service Housing/Rental Reimbursement

8.3.2. Non-material incentives for staff

As potential non-material incentives, all moral, moral-psychological, social and organizational values at the disposal of the subject of management, which are adequate to the socially conditioned needs of the individual, can be considered. Any incentives for labor activity can be classified as intangible, with the exception of monetary and non-monetary material remuneration of personnel.

The meaning of the concept of “non-material stimulus” combines everything that, necessarily reflected in a person’s feelings and mental images, at the same time really affects the spiritual, moral, ethical, aesthetic needs and interests of the individual. The intangible in stimulation is based on knowledge of the psychological foundations of human behavior in labor and understanding the importance of labor activity in meeting the highest (social) human needs (Table 8.3).

Table 8.3. Human needs and characteristics of motivation developing on their basis

Need
In reaching	Do something difficult. Manage, manipulate, organize - in relation to physical objects, people or ideas. Do this as quickly and independently as possible. Overcome obstacles and achieve high performance. Improve yourself. Compete and get ahead of others. Realize talents and thereby increase self-esteem
In respect	Admire the superior and support him. Praise, commend, exalt. Willingness to be influenced by others. Have an example to follow. Obey custom
In dominance	Control the environment. To influence or direct the behavior of others - suggestion, temptation, persuasion, indication. Dissuade, restrict, prohibit
In support	Satisfy needs with the compassionate help of a loved one. To be the one who is taken care of, supported, surrounded by care, protected, loved, who is given advice, who is led, who is forgiven, comforted. Stay close to a dedicated guardian. Always have someone around to support
In affiliation	Close contact and interaction with loved ones (or those who are similar to the subject himself or love him), give pleasure to the object and win his affection. Stay true to friendship
Need	Characteristics of the motivation of behavior aimed at meeting the need
In understanding	Ask questions or answer them. Interested in theory. Meditate. formulate, analyze, summarize
In exhibition	Make an impression. To be seen and heard. Excite, surprise, enchant, entertain, shock, intrigue, amuse, seduce
In autonomy	Break free from bonds and restrictions. Resist coercion. Avoid or stop activities prescribed by despotic authoritarian figures. Be independent and act according to your impulses. Not to be bound by anything, not to be responsible for anything. Ignore conventions
In aggression	Strength to overcome opposition. Attack, insult, show hostility. Fight. Revenge for insults. Resist with violence or punish
In opposition	In the struggle to master the situation or compensate for failures. By repeated actions, get rid of the humiliation of defeat. Overcome weakness, suppress fear. Wash away shame with action. Look for obstacles and difficulties. Respect and be proud of yourself
	Protect yourself from attacks, criticism, accusations. Hush up or justify mistakes, failures, humiliations.
To avoid damage	Avoid pain, wounds, disease, death. Avoid dangerous situations. Take precautionary measures
Avoiding shame	Avoid humiliation. To avoid difficulties or situations in which humiliation, contempt, ridicule, indifference of others is possible. Refrain from taking action to avoid failure
	Show compassion and help the defenseless in meeting their needs - a child or someone who is weak, exhausted, tired, inexperienced, infirm, defeated, humiliated, lonely, dejected, sick, in difficulty. Help in danger. Feed, support, console, protect, patronize, heal
In order	To put everything in order, to achieve cleanliness, organization, balance, neatness, accuracy, accuracy
	Act "for fun" - for no other purpose. Laugh, joke. Seek relaxation after stress in pleasures. Participate in games, sports activities, dancing, parties, gambling

The main directions of non-material incentives for personnel are moral stimulation, organizational incentives and incentives for free time. The priority of choosing one or another direction of non-material incentives in the practice of working with personnel depends on the situation in which and for what purpose they are used, as well as the extent to which the goals of the management bodies correspond to the interests of employees.

Moral stimulation of labor activity is the regulation of the employee's behavior on the basis of objects and phenomena that reflect social recognition and increase the employee's prestige.

Stimulation of this kind sets in motion a motivation based on the realization of the need to express gratitude and be recognized. The essence of regulation is the transfer and dissemination of information about the results of labor activity, achievements in it and the merits of the employee to the team or organization as a whole.

Methods of moral incentives for personnel are presented in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4. Methods of moral stimulation of personnel

Groups of methods of moral stimulation	Methods of moral stimulation
Systematic informing the staff	Extended Meetings: Meetings of the labor collective; Presentations of successful projects; Organized internal PR; Purposeful ideological work; Local corporate media (newspaper, magazine, website, local information network); Corporate identity (business accessories with company symbols, branded clothing), etc.
Organization of corporate events	professional competitions; master classes; labor competitions; corporate holidays; event activities; team building activities (team building), etc.
Official recognition of merit	Submission to state, professional and public awards; awarding honored employees with certificates, diplomas, corporate awards, valuable gifts, vouchers, sums of money (status awards); mention at meetings, public events; Hall of Fame
Managing relationships in a team	Use of democratic leadership style; scientifically substantiated selection, training and periodic certification of leading personnel; recruitment of primary units, taking into account the factor of psychological compatibility; the use of socio-psychological methods that contribute to the development of effective mutual understanding and interaction skills among team members, etc.

In essence, all of the listed methods of moral stimulation are of an informational nature, being information processes in which the source of information about the merits of employees is the subject of management, and the receiver of information about the merits of employees is the object of stimulation (employee, group, staff of the organization). The communication channel is the means of information transmission (visual, verbal).

The forms of evaluative information about a person and the methods of its transmission determine the content and effectiveness of the use of a moral stimulus. Moral stimulation should form positive motivation, create a positive mood, a favorable attitude towards work, team, organization, increase the importance of work in a person's life and the value of the organization.

Organizational (labor) stimulation is the regulation of an employee's behavior based on a change in the feeling of job satisfaction. Satisfaction with work as an evaluative-emotional attitude of an individual or a team to the work performed and the conditions for its flow is formed due to the relationship of private satisfactions with certain aspects of working life: satisfaction with the organization, content and productivity of labor, decent working conditions, satisfaction with the quality of working life, remuneration, relationships in the team, etc.

Of particular importance in this regard is the content of labor as a complex characteristic of labor (professional) activity, reflecting the diversity of labor functions and operations performed in the course of labor activity. Labor activity can intrigue a person with suspense, mystery end result(for example, the result of an experiment for a scientist or research for a geologist) or the complexity of the problem being solved, which seems to challenge a person’s pride (“can I or can’t I?”). A professionally interested person experiences pleasure not only in solving a difficult problem, but also in spending efforts on the solution process, on finding the most productive option. Work in this case is carried out for its own sake and is not only a means to an external goal.

Knowing the pleasure of the process and the result of the work (task), a person looks forward to the possibility of such pleasure in the future, which will encourage him to perform this activity again. The employee expects a reward in the form of intense positive emotions, joy and pleasure from work as interesting view activity, and his labor enthusiasm is manifested in the feeling of complete (mental and physical) involvement in the activity, full concentration of attention, thoughts and feelings in practice. A person knows how to act at one or another moment of work, since he clearly realized the goals of the activity and is not afraid of possible mistakes and failures.

Methods of organizational incentives for staff are presented in table. 8.5.

The methods of organizational stimulation listed in the table are aimed at changing the feeling of satisfaction of employees with their work in this organization. The peculiarity of work as the basis of a person's lifestyle is that job satisfaction largely determines life satisfaction and is an integral indicator of a person's social well-being. Replacing a person with a machine in routine, low-intellectual operations, enriching and enlarging labor, promoting workers in a professional and job levels, involving in the process of managing their work and the organization as a whole, the employer forms a more developed socially stable personality of the employee of the XXI century.

One of the urgent problems of a modern working person is the total lack of free time. Active development of the economy, competition in the labor market for many professions, growth information flows- all these objective factors increase the value of such an incentive as “free time from work”, and force us to look for ways to condense working time, look for reserves - for development, development the latest technologies, professional and personal growth, to create a family, for friends, hobbies, recreation, sports. Therefore, the relevance of using such an important incentive as free time in the system of managing the motivation and incentives of the organization's personnel is obvious.

Incentive free time is the regulation of employee behavior based on changes in the time of his employment. The essence of incentives is to provide the employee with real opportunities to realize professional interests without prejudice to personal life, family, health and recreation. The growth of the material well-being of society, the level of development of world science, culture, art, information technologies causes the expansion of the range of interests of modern man,

Table 8.5. Methods of organizational incentives for personnel

Groups of organizational incentive methods	Organizational incentive methods
Improving the quality of working life	Improving the organization of work; enlargement of the scope of work; expansion of the content of the corpse; intellectualization of labor functions; professional development and training of personnel; improvement of working conditions and equipment of workplaces; ergonomics and interior design
Career Management	Planning, motivation and control of individual professional development and promotion employees; organizing the acquisition of the necessary level of professional training; search and support of talents; encouraging creativity and initiative; assessment and analysis of the results and methods of activity, personal and professional qualities of employees
Involvement of personnel in the management process	Formation of self-governing autonomous collectives; encouragement of voluntary associations of workers in groups to solve the problems of the organization; providing opportunities for group discussion of upcoming decisions; operational change (rotation) of jobs and operations; combination of professions; delegation of authority; organization feedback; reduction of labor regulation; providing freedom to dispose of resources (equipment, materials, finances); equity participation of personnel in the ownership of the enterprise (ensuring participation in ownership); use of idea reward schemes (the scheme is effective if people know how to make suggestions, believe that their proposals are expected to be noticed, considered and rewarded)
Organization of labor competitions	professional competitions; reviews of professional skills; competitive master classes of leading experts; blitz tournaments; competition of teams - working groups, teams, departments, branches, business units, subdivisions - for achieving great results, saving time or resources

living outside the plane of professional labor activity. Many workers today need free time to take advantage of everything that life gives them in a modern highly developed society, to combine work and personal life without compromising the latter, and so on.

The purpose of leisure time incentives is to reward employees for high performance labor and labor returns, for achieving labor success through the provision of special employment conditions: the provision of additional rest time, the establishment of flexible working hours, the use of flexible forms of employment (Table 8.6).

Management activities in the field of non-material incentives should be aimed at solving the following main tasks:

Attracting highly qualified personnel, young specialists to the organization, providing the organization with personnel of the required quality, quantity and at the right time;

Decreased staff turnover;

Formation of a favorable socio-psychological climate and a productive working environment in primary teams and in general in the organization;

Formation (strengthening) of the organization's image as a favorable employer;

Formation and maintenance of organizational culture.

Table 8.6. Free time stimulation methods

Groups willows incentive free time	Free time stimulation methods
Providing extra rest time	Unscheduled one-day paid leave; Addition of additional days to vacation; Additional paid leave; Creative vacation; Additional leave without pay
Establishment of flexible working hours	Permission to self-regulate the total length of the working day. working week, the working year, subject to the obligatory observance of the general norm of working hours; Application of methods of division of work; Shift-forwarding form of work
Application of flexible forms of employment	Temporary and seasonal employment; home work; agency work; The work of the administrator on the home phone; Self-employment, etc.

Material and non-material incentives should actively complement each other in the personnel incentive system, which will become effective if it is based on a set of legal norms that fix managerial methods and means of influencing personnel in order to strengthen the motivation for lawful behavior and encourage the development of those necessary for the organization (and / or society) forms of relations.

It often happens that in order to obtain economic benefits, the combined action of several material goods is required, and if one of them is missing, then the goal cannot be achieved at all or is achieved only incompletely. These material goods, mutually complementing each other, we call, following the example of Menger, complementary material goods. Thus, for example, paper, a pen and ink, a needle and thread, a cart and a horse, a bow and an arrow, two boots belonging to the same pair, two pairs of gloves, etc., are complementary material goods. Especially often, one might say constantly, the relation of complementarity occurs in the field of productive material goods.

It is quite natural that the close relationship between complementary material goods, which is necessary for them to bring their inherent utility, also finds expression in the formation of their value. Here it gives rise to a whole kind of peculiarities, which, however, all fit into the framework of the general law of marginal utility. In considering these features, we must keep in mind the difference between the value inherent in the whole group and the value of each individual thing that is part of the group.

The total value of a whole group of material goods is determined in most cases by the magnitude of the marginal benefit that all these material goods can bring in joint action. If, for example, three material goods A, B and C constitute a complementary group, and if the smallest, economically beneficial benefit that can be obtained from the joint, combined use of these three material goods is expressed as 100, then the value of all three material goods A , B and C together will also be equal to 100.

That is the general rule. The only exceptions to it are those cases where - according to the general rules already known to us - the value of a thing in general is determined not by the immediate marginal utility of the kind of material goods to which it belongs, but by the marginal utility of another kind of material goods used to replace this thing. . In our special example, this will happen when each individual member of the complementary group can be replaced by a new copy through the purchase, production, or diversion of material goods from other, isolated industries of use, and when at the same time the resulting "substitutional benefit" for all members of the group , taken together, is less than the marginal benefit that they give when used in combination. If, for example, the marginal benefit obtained from combined use is 100, and the "substitutional value" of the three members of the group separately is only 20, 30 and 40 - in total, then only 90 - then from all three material goods, taken together, it will depend not on obtaining a combined marginal benefit of 100, but on obtaining only a smaller benefit of 90. However, since in such cases the effect of complementarity proper on the formation of value is not noticed, and the formation of value is general rules, we already know, then we do not need to deal here with a special consideration of these cases, and therefore in the following presentation I intend to analyze only the general normal case, when the marginal utility obtained from the combined use of complementary material goods is, at the same time, the marginal utility available. , which determines the value of material goods.

The marginal benefit obtained from the combined use of complementary material goods is determined primarily, as we said above, by the total, cumulative value of the entire group. Between the individual members of the group, this common group value is distributed in a completely different way, depending on the casuistic features of the given case.

First, if each of the members of a complementary group can serve to satisfy a human need in no other way than when used together with the rest of the members of this group, and if at the same time it is not possible to replace the lost member with a new copy, then in this case each member of the the composition of the group, the thing taken separately is the bearer of the entire aggregate value of the whole group, while the rest of the things, without the first, have no value. Suppose I have a pair of gloves whose total value is one guilder; if I lose one glove, I lose all the usefulness that a pair of gloves brings, and therefore all the value that a whole pair has - the second glove left with me will no longer be of any value. It goes without saying that each of the two gloves can play both roles; which one of them will in this case be the bearer of the whole value of the whole pair and which will be a thing that is worthless and worth nothing - this depends entirely on the special conditions of the given case. Cases of this kind are relatively rare in practical life.

It happens much more often, secondly, that individual members of a complementary group, even outside the sphere of their combined use, retain the ability to bring a certain, albeit insignificant, benefit. In such cases, the value of an individual thing belonging to a complementary group no longer fluctuates between "nothing" and "everything", but only between the value of the marginal benefit that this thing can bring when used in isolation, as a minimum, and the value of the combined marginal benefit minus from it the isolated marginal utility of the remaining members, as a maximum. Let us suppose, for example, that the three material goods A, B, and C, when used in combination, can produce a marginal utility of 100, and that A taken separately can produce a marginal utility of 10, B 20, and C 30. In this case, the value of thing A will be as follows: if it is used separately from other things, then only its isolated marginal utility 10 can be obtained from it, and so will its value. If, however, the whole group is taken as a whole and it is supposed to sell thing A, donate, etc., then it turns out that with thing A you can get a total benefit of 100, without thing A - only a smaller isolated benefit of things B and C, expressed in numbers 20 and 30, therefore, only 50, and, therefore, the difference in utility of 50 depends on the possession of thing A or on the loss of it. Therefore, as the last, decisive member of the group, thing A has a value of 100 - (20 + 30), i.e. e. 50; as an isolated thing - only the value 10 [it goes without saying that here again it depends on the special conditions of the given case which of the members of the group is evaluated as a complementary member of the group, and which are evaluated only as isolated things. If, for example, the owner of a complete group of complementary material goods wants to buy thing A, he will evaluate it as part of the whole group, and things B and C, which remain isolated, as isolated things, i.e., lower. If, on the contrary, they buy item C from him, then he will evaluate it as part of the whole group at 100 - (10 + 20), i.e. at 70, and things A and B as isolated - only at 10 and 20] . We see, therefore, that in the second case the fluctuations in the distribution of the total value of the group among its individual members are not as sharp as in the first case.

But even more often it happens, thirdly, that individual members of the group not only can be used as auxiliary materials for other purposes, but may at the same time be replaced by other specimens of the same genus. For example, to build a house, a piece of land, bricks, logs and labor of workers are needed. If several wagonloads of bricks intended for building a house are lost, or if several people from the workers hired for this purpose leave, then under normal conditions this circumstance will by no means interfere with obtaining a combined benefit, that is, it will not prevent the building of a house, but only lost Construction Materials and the departed workers will be replaced by new ones. Hence the following consequences for the formation of the value of complementary material goods:

1) members of the complementary group, capable of being replaced by other specimens, can never, even in those cases when they are needed precisely as part of the whole group, acquire a value that exceeds their "substitutional value", i.e., the value that is bought at the price of refusing to receive benefit in those branches of the use of material goods, from where funds are taken to replenish the deficiency;

2) due to this, the limits within which the value of an individual thing can be established, evaluated either as a member of an entire complementary group, or as an isolated material good, are narrowed, and, moreover, they are narrowed the more, the more this thing acquires the character of a commonly used, having a wide sale in the commodity market. Indeed, the greater the number of specimens at hand and the wider the possibility of their use, the smaller will be the difference between the importance of the branch of use from which the specimens needed to replace the thing are taken (maximum value), and the importance of the branch closest to it, in which it is possible to there would be a use for the extra isolated instance (minimum value). Let us suppose, for example, that of the goods belonging to the genus A, besides the thing A1, which is part of the complementary group, there are only two other instances of A2 and A3, and that the importance of existing branches of use (other than use in the complementary group) is expressed by the numbers 50, 20, 10, etc. In this case, the material goods A2 and A3 will satisfy only those areas of needs, the importance of which is expressed by the numbers 50 and 20, and therefore, if one of these two copies goes to replace the thing A1, then the benefit will be lost. , expressed by the number 20. If, on the contrary, after the destruction of the value of the complementary group, the thing A1 itself has to be given only some isolated use as an auxiliary means, then only a third branch of use will remain open for it, the importance of which is expressed by the number 10. Therefore, in In this case, the value of item A1 will still fluctuate between 10 (isolated use) and 20 (the last, decisive member of the group by virtue of substitution). If instead of three there were a thousand branches of use, then the difference between the thousandth branch, from which, in case of need, one would have to take the copy needed for replacement, and the first thousand, in which one would have to look for a use for the copy made superfluous due to the disintegration of the complementary group, would be reduced to , of course, almost to zero.

3) As a result, under the conditions we have just spoken of, the value of the replaceable members of the complementary group, regardless of the specific complementary use, is established at a certain height at which it remains for them and in the distribution of the total value of the group among individual members. This distribution is carried out in such a way that from the total value of the whole group - the value determined by the marginal utility obtained by combined use - the constant value of the members that can be replaced is distinguished first of all, and the remainder, which fluctuates according to the magnitude of the marginal utility, falls as their isolated value. to the share of those members who cannot be replaced. Suppose that in our example, which we have already used so many times, members A and B have an unchanging "substitutional value", expressed as the number 10 (or 20); then the non-substitutable thing C would have an isolated value of 70 when the combined marginal utility is 100, or an isolated value of 90 when the marginal utility reaches 120 [if thing C could also be substituted at a lower "substitutional value" , then we would have the case discussed above and the marginal utility of combined use could not serve as a basis for determining the value of the complementary group at all].

Since, of all the casuistic cases we have considered, the last one occurs most often in practice, the formation of the value of complementary material goods is carried out predominantly according to the last formula. This formula finds its most important application, especially in the distribution of the incomes of production among the various forces of production, through whose combined action they are obtained. Indeed, almost every product is the result of the combined action of a whole group of complementary material goods: land, labor, fixed and circulating capital. The vast majority of complementary material goods as commercially available commodities can be substituted at will; such, for example, are the work of hired laborers, raw materials, fuel, tools, etc. Only a minority of them are not amenable, or at least not easily amenable to substitution; such are, for example, a piece of land cultivated by a peasant, a mine, Railway, a factory building with all its furnishings, the activity of the entrepreneur himself with its purely individual qualities, etc. Thus, we find here precisely the very casuistic conditions under which the above (under the number 3) formula for the distribution of value between individual members should take effect. complementary group; and indeed, it is applied in practice with the greatest precision. Indeed, in practical life total amount income is deducted first of all "production costs". If you take a closer look, it turns out that in reality this is not the whole mass of costs, since, after all, the plot of land used for production or the activity of the entrepreneur, as things of value, also belong to the number of "production costs" - no, these are only expenses. to replaceable productive means of a given substitutional value: wage labor, raw materials, wear and tear of tools, etc. his land, the miner - at the expense of his mining industry, the manufacturer - at the expense of his factory, the merchant - at the expense of his entrepreneurial activity.

When the profitability of the complementary group rises, it never occurs to anyone to attribute the increase in income to the members who can be replaced; on the contrary, they say that it was "the land plot (or mine) that gave more income." But in the same way, with a decrease in the total profitability, it does not occur to anyone to put "expenses" on the account in a reduced amount - no, the shortfall is explained by the fact that the land plot (or mine, etc.) gave less income. And such reasoning is quite logical and correct: only the constant “substitutional value” really depends on material goods that can be replaced at any time, and the rest of the total amount of benefits obtained from combined use depends on those that cannot be replaced.

The path we have taken so far in our analysis would also lead us to the solution of the problem which has occupied our science for so much and for so long, and which economists usually declare—perhaps too hastily—insoluble, namely the following problem: : to determine the size of the participation that each of several cooperative factors takes in the creation of a common product [cf. Bernhardi. Versuch einer Kritik der Grunde fur grosses und kleines Grundeigentum. Petersburg, 1849. S. 198; Mithoff in Schonberg's "Handbuch der politischen Okonomie". Ed. 2. S. 692, and the authors indicated there. (cf. also Wieser. Ursprung und Hauptgesetze des wirtschaftlichen Werts. S. 170)]. , of course, be expressed in figures, but the question of whether we can not determine the share of value, it seems to me, cannot be decided in an unequivocally negative sense.However, this is not the place to enter into a discussion of this difficult question.

1) members of a complementary group, capable of being replaced by other specimens, can never, even in those cases when they are needed precisely as parts of the whole group, acquire values that exceed their "substitutional value", i.e.

The value that is bought at the price of refusing to receive benefits in those branches of the use of material goods, from where funds are taken to replenish the deficiency;

2) due to this, the limits within which the value of an individual thing can be established, evaluated either as a member of a whole complementary group, or as an isolated material good, are narrowed, and, moreover, they are narrowed the more, the more this thing acquires the character of a commonly used thing, having a wide market for goods;

3) consequently, under the conditions of which we have just spoken, the value of replaceable members

complementary group, regardless of the specific complementary use, is established at a certain height at which it remains for them and in the distribution of the total value of the group among individual members. This distribution is carried out in such a way that from the total value of the whole group - the value determined by the marginal utility obtained by combined use - the constant value of the members that can be replaced is distinguished first of all, and the remainder, which fluctuates according to the magnitude of the marginal utility, falls as their isolated value. to the share of those members who cannot be replaced. Suppose that in our example, which we have already used so many times, members A and B have an unchanging "substitutional value", expressed as the number 10 (or 20); then the non-substitutable thing C would have an isolated value of 70 when the combined marginal utility is 100, or an isolated value of 90 when the marginal utility reaches 120.

Indeed, it is applied in practice with the greatest precision.

In fact, in practical life, the "costs of production" are deducted first of all from the total amount of income. If you take a closer look, it turns out that in reality this is not the whole mass of costs, since, after all, the plot of land used for production or the activity of the entrepreneur as things of value also belongs to the number of "production costs" - no, these are only expenses. to replaceable productive means of a given constitutional value: wage labor, raw materials, wear and tear of tools, and so on. The balance resulting from the deduction of these expenses is attributed as “net income” to the account of the members of the group who cannot be replaced: the peasant attributes it to the account of his land, the miner to the account of his mining industry, the manufacturer to the account of his factory, the merchant to the account of his entrepreneurial activity.

That the costs of production have a strong influence on the value of material goods is a fact, fully proven and indisputable. But how to theoretically explain this influence, and in particular how to reconcile it, without introducing duality and contradiction into the explanation, with the same undoubted influence that their usefulness has on the value of material goods - this is the problem on the solution of which our science has had to work so hard. .

The common property of all material goods is that they serve to satisfy human needs. But only a certain part of material goods performs this task directly - we call them consumer material goods: the other part of material goods

benefits us in the sense of satisfying our needs only indirectly, namely by helping us to produce other material goods, which will only later be used to satisfy human needs - we call the material goods of this second category productive material goods ... We, following the example of Menger, let us divide all material goods in general into different orders or categories. We include in the first category those material goods that directly serve to satisfy human needs ... (for example, bread); to the second - those with the help of which material goods of the first category are produced (for example, flour, a bread oven, the work of a baker required to make bread); to the third - those that serve to produce goods of the second category (grain from which flour is prepared, a mill in which grain is ground, materials for building a bread oven, etc.); to the fourth - the means of production of material goods of the third category (the land that produces cereal plants, the plow with which it is plowed, the labor of the peasant, materials for building a mill, etc.) and so on - to the fifth, sixth, tenth category we attribute material goods, utility which, from the point of view of satisfying human needs, consists in the production of material goods of the next preceding category.

In the last analysis, productive material goods, like all others, can acquire significance for our well-being in only one way, namely, by bringing us a certain benefit, which we would not receive without them; and since the benefits they bring to us, in the end, just as much consist in the satisfaction of our needs, it is quite natural that the value of productive material goods will be high when the satisfaction of an important need depends on them, and lower when when the satisfaction of an unimportant need depends on them.

So, economists are indeed quite right when they say that the value of a product is determined by the cost of production. Only in this case it is necessary to constantly remember the limits in which the "law of production costs" is valid, and the source from which it draws its strength. First, the "law of production costs" is a private law. It manifests itself only to the extent that it is possible to acquire in the desired quantity and

temporarily new instances of material goods to replace the old ones with the help of production. If it is not possible to replace the old copy with a new one, then the value of each product is determined by the immediate marginal utility of the particular kind of material goods to which it belongs, and in this case the correspondence between the value of the productive means that serve as intermediate links is destroyed.

But it is even more important not to lose sight of the fact that, secondly, even where the law of production costs is in force, production costs are not the final, but always only an intermediate factor that determines the value of material goods. In the last analysis, it is not the costs of production that give value to their products, but, on the contrary, the costs of production receive value from their products.

Finally, the astute theoretician should also be struck by the following strange circumstance: in order to maintain it in general, adherents of the law of production costs are forced to furnish it with a whole series of reservations in which they refer to conditions that have nothing to do with production costs. Thus, for example, according to the teachings of our economists, the law of production costs is valid only for such material goods, the quantity of which can be increased by production to the sizes we desire, and even for these material goods - only if they also have an appropriate degree utility. In fact, even the adherents of the law of production costs quite agree that, for example, a ship that cannot walk on water is of no value, even if a million was spent on its construction.

Indeed, the reservations mentioned above ignore those conditions under which the costs of production themselves remain in line with marginal utility. They contain, therefore, the recognition that the costs of production can only exert a decisive influence on value when they also have marginal utility on their side.

In the preceding pages, I have carefully tried to isolate the grain of truth that is undoubtedly hidden in the doctrine of the law of production costs. The law of production costs exists, production costs do have an important influence on the value of material goods. But the dominance of production costs is only a partial case of the more general law of marginal utility.

The mental work that people have to do in determining subjective value is far from being as complex and difficult as it might seem at first glance with an abstract depiction of the process of evaluating material goods. Where it is a question of one's own benefit, where every oversight causes losses, there the simplest person becomes quick-witted. Science, bewildered by the shift in utility and value, declared such material goods as air and water to be things of the highest use value. A simple person looked at this much more correctly and considered air and water to be things of no value, and he turned out to be quite right. For millennia ... the common man has been accustomed to acquiring and alienating material goods and assessing them not from the point of view of the highest benefit that they are capable of bringing by their nature, but from the point of view of the increase or decrease in the specific benefit that each material good can bring. In other words, the simple human practitioner applied the doctrine of marginal utility in practice much earlier than political economy formulated this doctrine.

We now know exactly how individuals A, B, C, etc., act in determining the value of material goods that affect their interests, each standing on his own individual economic, highly subjective point of view. But so they may ask us, and indeed they do ask us: what relation do all these subjective, purely personal judgments about value have to the science of the national, social economy? After all, the object of political economy is not individual economic, but socio-economic phenomena... In a word, we want to be shown how not subjective, but objective national economic value is explained and determined.

The "social laws", the study of which is the task of political economy, are the result of the concordant actions of individuals. Consent in action is, in turn, the result of the interplay of consistent motives that underlie human action. And if this is so, then there is no doubt that in explaining social laws it is necessary to get to the driving motives by which the actions of individuals are determined, or to take these motives as a starting point; it is obvious at the same time that our understanding of the social law

should be the more complete, the more completely and more precisely we know these driving motives and their connection with the economic activity of individuals.

Thus, subjective value is at the same time both a compass and a mediating motive for human economic actions: a compass, because it shows in which direction our interest in relation to material goods is most strongly strained and, consequently, in which direction our business activity is directed; a mediating motive - because, feeling that the value of material goods is a true reflection of our main interests, which are the pursuit of well-being, we have long been accustomed in economic life to follow only the greatest value.

It is absolutely true that it is not the business of political economy to be concerned with the elucidation of the general laws of human needs and strivings, for example, the existence and operation of the human striving for well-being; it cannot and must leave this to psychology. But something completely different needs to be clarified, namely, how the interests of well-being are connected with the possession of material goods, how the general instinctive desire for well-being is transformed into specific economic interests. The solution of these questions cannot be demanded from psychology - once it is needed, only one science can give it: political economy.

Page 11 of 36

Tangible and intangible goods and services.

In all developed countries, the economy consists of two interrelated and complementary spheres of production aimed at obtaining benefits:

material, where a product is created in a tangible form, for example, shoes, machine tools, cement, coal;

intangible, where spiritual, moral and other values are created - works of culture, art, science, etc.

boons means to satisfy people's needs.

There are many criteria on the basis of which different types of goods are distinguished (Fig. 2.2). Benefits can be classified into:

1) material, including the natural gifts of nature (earth, air, water, climate); production products (food, buildings, structures, machines, tools);

2) intangible, having the form of activity useful to people and influencing the development of human abilities. They are created in the non-production sphere: health care, education, culture, etc. These include internal benefits given to man by nature - the ability to science, voice, ear for music, etc., as well as external benefits - what the outside world gives for satisfaction of needs (reputation, business connections, patronage, etc.).

The vital activity of a person in the process of managing is manifested, on the one hand, in the expenditure of energy, resources, etc., and on the other hand, in the corresponding replenishment of living expenses. At the same time, an economic subject (i.e. a person in economic activity) seeks to act rationally - by comparing costs and benefits. This behavior is explained as follows.

An essential feature of human life and activity is dependence on the material world. Some of the material goods are in abundance and therefore they are always available to people (air, sunlight, wind energy). Such goods in economic theory are called free or non-economic. As long as these conditions persist, these benefits and the needs for them are not the concerns and calculations of man, therefore, they are not studied in the economy.

Other material goods are available in limited quantities (various kinds of “rarities”). In order to satisfy the needs in them and to have them in an accessible quantity, human efforts are needed to obtain them, to adapt to the needs.

These benefits are called economic(or business). The well-being of people depends on the possession of these benefits, so they treat them carefully, economically, prudently.

Goods are a specific form of economic good, i.e. products of labor created for exchange (sale).

So far, we have been talking only about goods, but the production process includes the provision of services.

Services- this is the economic activity of a person, the results of which are expressed in the satisfaction of the personal needs of the population and society as a whole.

There are tangible and intangible services. The first type includes transport, storage, utilities, postal and other services, the second - the services of lawyers, policemen, university professors, artists, etc.

The latest performances about the structure of highly developed production are schematically summarized in fig. 2.3.

A specific form of an economic good is a commodity, i.e. good produced for exchange. More detailed description goods will be given by us in chapter 5. Now it is important to find out that in the process of human economic activity, goods and services are produced that satisfy certain needs of people. If there is no need for the produced product (service), no one wants to buy it, there will be no market for it and the manufacturer will not receive any benefit from its production. As a result, such a product will not be produced.

Benefits are material values ​​for which it is directed. Fundamentals of the theory of the value of economic goods. Methods of moral stimulation

8.3.2. Non-material incentives for staff

Benefits are material values for which it is directed. Fundamentals of the theory of the value of economic goods. Methods of moral stimulation