Theory(translated from Greek means teaching, consideration, research) - teaching, a system of ideas and principles. It is a set of generalized provisions that form a science or its section.
Theory acts as a form of synthetic knowledge, within which individual concepts, hypotheses and laws lose their former autonomy and become elements of an integral system. In theory, each inference is derived from other inferences based on some rules of inference. The ability to predict is a consequence of theoretical constructions. Theories are formulated, developed and tested according to the scientific method.
Organization(translated from Greek means tool) is a targeted pooling of resources. Organizations created by a person (people) are characterized by the presence of a person as an active resource. Man-made organizations are characterized by the presence of management and planning functions.
1) An organization is a group of people working together, led by a leader and carrying out certain plans.
2) Organization is a set of activities or actions aimed at obtaining optimal conditions to achieve any result, involving the greatest efficiency, productivity, quality of services provided and, as a rule, accompanied by a decrease in the cost of funds to achieve this goal.
Organization theory- this is the science of the basic laws that regulate the life of organizations as real objects of the reality around us.
The theory of organization is understood as a system of judgments that describes and explains the process of creation, functioning and development of organizations, giving knowledge of the real foundations of all the provisions and generalizations put forward and reducing discoveries in the field of organizational connections and relations, trends, patterns, laws and principles to a single beginning.
Thus, there are several aspects to the concept of organization theory. This theory:
Expresses the relationship between organizational knowledge and practice;
Denotes a structural element of knowledge in a dynamic system of organizational and managerial knowledge;
Distinguishes the level of development of knowledge according to the degree of validity (problem - hypothesis - theory);
It serves to designate the connections of a certain set of statements (all categories are relations of consequence, and concepts are relations of definition);
It performs several groups of functions corresponding to a certain level of development of theoretical knowledge about organizational relationships and connections.
Functions of the theory of organization.
The first group of functions (collective, descriptive and systematizing) corresponds to the empirical side cognitive activity researcher.
The second group (explanations, generalizations and predictions) corresponds to the actual abstract-theoretical activity.
The third group (search and predictive function) reflects production and practical activities.
The subject of organization theory.
The subject of study of the theory of organization is the analysis of the processes occurring in organizational systems, including the patterns and problems of the development of organizations, which are a purposeful association into groups of individuals for joint activities.
Today, there are several points of view on this issue - from extended interpretations to the denial of the need to define the subject of organizational theory. The most common definitions of the subject matter of organization theory are:
1. Organization theory is scientific organization organizations.
2. The system of knowledge in the field of analysis and synthesis of social organizations.
3. The subject of organization theory is organizational relations.
4. It is the science of how organizations operate in complex environments.
5. This is a discipline that studies the processes of change in organizations over time.
6. The subject of the theory of organization is the study of diverse organizational phenomena and processes, what exists in organizational reality and in what direction the development in the organization is going.
7. This is a science that studies the behavior of an organization in terms of the relationship between its goals and limited resources and finding income in order to achieve its goals.
8. This is the doctrine of the patterns, laws and principles of the construction, functioning and development of organizations.
9. This is a kind of philosophy of organization and organizational activity.
10. This is an integral doctrine of organizations (objects of organizational science), expressed by a system of categories, ideas, concepts, principles, patterns and laws.
11. This is rather an intellectual toolkit, a psychology of thinking, than a teaching; these are not ready-made dogmas, but starting points for further research.
12. The subject (goal) of the theory of organization - on a scientific research basis, to analyze the phenomena occurring in the world of organizations, to reveal in these phenomena trends, patterns, contradictions and laws that determine organizational relationships and connections.
There is another point of view on the definition of the subject of organization theory - the definition should never be fixed, since it will never be accurate. In German textbooks on the theory of organization, the interpretation of its subject is not given; instead, concepts such as organizational order, organizational problems, principles and methods for their solution are taken as the basis.
Fundamental Problem of Organization Theory- study of the influence that individuals and groups of people have on the functioning of the organization, on the changes taking place in it, on ensuring effective purposeful activities and obtaining the necessary results.
In the theory of organization, it is not about production technologies, but about information technology management at all levels of organizational activity. The theory of organization is designed to use the achievements and data of a number of related scientific disciplines to solve these problems.
Objects of the theory of organization.
Organizational theory has special objects of study and transformation, reflected in three types of relationships:
Organizational: intra-organizational relationships and relationships, phenomena, structures and processes;
Institutional: the relationship between an organization and external environment;
Behavioral, reflecting the reaction and actions of the organization, its employees and others interested parties on certain external and internal conditions, incentives and motives.
The mission is the task of finding a compromise between the needs of the market, on the one hand, and the capabilities and desires of the company, on the other.
Generally speaking, taking into account the impact on the Mission of the entire hierarchy of supersystems (state macro-environment, continental communities, world markets, etc.), the coordinate system will be in general case N-dimensional. For example, the fourth axis -<МОЖНО>will reflect the political, economic, technological and social constraints of the company's macro environment. However, their influence, as a rule, will be insignificant and for the time being it can be neglected, focusing on the most significant factors of the market environment.
Some managers believe that the main goal of creating and operating an enterprise is to obtain the maximum possible profit through the sale of manufactured products (work performed, services rendered) to consumers. Often this point of view is reflected in the quality of products. At the same time, the production of products without making a profit will lead to the ruin of the enterprise. Therefore, two goals - profit and customer satisfaction - must be balanced.
There are the following types of goals, which depend on the stage life cycle enterprises:
· Economic:
- survival in the long term;
· - Receiving a profit;
- increase in the value of the enterprise;
- increase in market share;
- improving the quality of products;
- respect for the environment;
· Improvement of service maintenance.
· Social:
- Increasing the income of employees;
- social security;
· job satisfaction;
· - social integration;
· - staff development.
The choice of goals of the enterprise is influenced mainly by factors:
Availability and volume of demand for products;
The level of profitability of products;
the capital intensity of production;
Availability of suppliers (raw materials, materials, fuel, components, equipment);
availability of engineering solutions for the manufacture of new or modified products;
Availability of qualified personnel.
1. Organization theory as a science
Organization theory as a science. Four basic questions that organization theory must answer. Tectology A. Bogdanov. Determination of the size and boundaries of the organization. A way to arrange the elements of an organization. The elementary unit (“atom”) of an organization. The way organizations adapt to change. Organization theory concepts. Neoclassical approach to organization theory, limited resources, rational behavior economic entities, free market transactions. Transaction cost approach to organization theory, bounded rationality of economic agents, possibility of opportunism, transaction costs. Modern approach to the theory of organization (basic provisions). Definition of tectology. Methods of tectology. Elements and complexes. The idea of conjugation. organizational relationships. Equilibrium of the complex with the environment. Tectological selection. Tectological laws. Structural stability of the complex. organizational forms. Tectological crises. Tectological act. Tectological progress and regress.
The world around us is multifaceted. This cannot but create serious problems with its description. Identification of the main causal relationships that exist in it requires significant material and intellectual efforts. Science plays the role of a pioneer here. Practical experience makes it impossible to look deeply into the processes that take place around us in physical, chemical, biological, social and many other forms. Only science with its apparatus of scientific abstractions, hypotheses, theorems is able to describe cause-and-effect relationships that are not visible to the “naked eye”.
Any science has its own subject of study and defines the framework (boundaries) in which its objects are analyzed. Organization theory is no exception. The object of her study is the organization. As already mentioned above (in the introduction), we will be further interested in the economic organization that arises in the course of economic activity a person in the process of his interaction with natural matter regarding its transformation (transformation) into elements of life activity.
The definition of organization and the specification of the subject of analysis of this work allow us to establish the main questions that the theory of organization as a science should solve in relation to economic organizations. Here, of course, we have a relationship between the whole (the theory of organization) and the part (the theory of organization in relation to economic organizations).
In our opinion, there are four such issues: 1) determining the size and boundaries of the organization, 2) determining how to organize the elements of the organization, 3) determining the elementary unit (“atom”) of the organization, 4) determining how the organization adapts to change.
Let us dwell in more detail on these four questions of organization theory.
Let's start with the problem of determining the size and boundaries of the organization. With regard to economic organizations (enterprises, firms, corporations, etc.), this problem actually boils down to determining the size of production and marketing of products. This is due to the fact that any capital in an organized In this form, either three known stages of movement pass successively, if it is connected with production, or two, if this capital operates only in the sphere of circulation, or one, if it is money capital provided for loans.
Schematically, it looks like this:
D - T (s. p., r. s.) ... P ... T '- D ',
where the first phase is associated with the acquisition of the necessary factors of production (means of production and labor), the second phase is directly production, where the cost increases, the third is the sale of goods.D - T - D',
where the first phase is associated with the purchase of goods from manufacturers in bulk by the merchant capitalist, and the second phase is with its sale to direct consumers.
where money capital lends money to another economic entity. There is no production volume as such, but there is a parameter that is actually very close to it. This is the total amount of money loaned.
The general algorithm for solving this kind of problem for all organized forms of capital is reduced to the ratio of the result of the activity and the costs associated with it. The size and boundary of the organization will be related to maximizing the excess of the result over the costs (maximizing the profit from the activity).
In economic theory, there are two approaches to solving this problem (one historically precedes the other). The first one is based on neoclassical postulates (for details, see 3.3), when the task of determining the size and boundaries of the firm is associated with the use of the apparatus of the production function. In the simplest interpretation, the volume of production when the profit received by the firm is maximum is determined under the condition that marginal cost and marginal revenue are equal. This means that the firm is making the best use of its resources. subject to free market transactions.
The second approach makes it possible to determine the desired volume of production including transaction costs(for details on these costs, see 3.3) when market transactions (transactions) are not free. Here the apparatus production function is replaced by a comparison of specific costs, which are the transaction costs noted above. Their accounting allows you to decide on the inclusion (exclusion) in the organization (firm, enterprise) of a particular activity, for example, own production of components or their purchase, creating your own distribution network or working with a wholesaler, etc.
For organized capital, professionally engaged in the marketing of products, bringing it to the final consumer ( trading company, commercial enterprise), both noted approaches are also correct. In the first case, the sales volume at which the maximum trading profit is obtained corresponds to the situation when the marginal trading costs are equal to the marginal trading income (assuming free market transactions).
In the second case, such a sales volume is determined by the ratio of transaction costs, when the trader can determine which products and in what volume should be sold as part of their own organization, and which should be excluded from organization structures.
For the money capitalist, the solution to the problem of the size and boundaries of the organization also lies in line with the two approaches noted above, since when considering this issue, the money capitalist, like anyone else, correlates the result and costs, if it is necessary to exceed the first over the second.
The first (neoclassical) approach determines the amount of money that can be loaned to maximize profits. This relates the marginal cost of lending money to marginal income, which can be obtained by lending this money (the problem of optimizing the distribution of enterprise resources is actually solved using an apparatus close to the apparatus of the production function, provided that market transactions are free).
The second approach (based on transaction costs) also makes it possible to solve the problem of determining the boundaries and sizes of the organization. The money capitalist, under the condition that market transactions are not free, determines what kind of activity to make part of the structure of the organization, and what kind to exclude.
The next task of organization theory is to determine the way in which the elements of an organization are ordered.
It seems to us that this is only possible through research. the internal structure of the organization. As a result of its implementation, three different approaches to solving the noted problem were identified.
The first is related to the allocation of linear, functional, linear-functional, divisional, matrix structures of the organization (see 4.1 about this). The paper will compare in detail the linear-functional and divisional structures of the company. This is primarily due to the fact that these structures are most widely used in modern enterprises(in firms).
For all its prevalence, this approach suffers from one-sidedness and does not take into account the most important relations for management: ownership, control and management. This contradiction is removed when considering another classification of intra-company ordering of elements, dividing the structure of the organization into unitary (U), holding (X) and multi-divisional (M) structures (for details, see 4.2).
Of independent importance is the third approach to solving the problem of determining the method of ordering the elements of the organization - networking, the rejection of the vertical structures of the organization, the transition to flat structures (for more details, see 8.3).
The third issue that the theory of organization must solve is the definition of the elementary unit (“atom”) of the organization.
In economic organizations (firms, enterprises) there are two types of such structural units. The first is a technological unit based on the division of labor into some elementary components with the assignment of labor assignments to certain workers (or groups of workers) (for details, see 7.1). At the same time, well-known structural units arise in the form of departments, services, workshops, sections, etc. For their successful functioning, coordination of activities becomes especially necessary, which can even stand out in special function management (see 4.4.).
The second type of structural unit of the organization is a business process, which is an economic unit, when the company's business is divided into some components that have their end user both inside the company and outside. As a result, new structural units appear - process units (process teams, groups, etc.) (for details, see 7.2).
The last (fourth) issue addressed by the theory of organization is to determine how organizations adapt to changes, primarily the external environment.
Two points are singled out here, which have not only substantive, but also historical sides. Until recently, one of the unshakable postulates of the theory of organization and management was the postulate of the rigidity of the structure of the organization. As a result of changes in the external environment of the organization (firms, enterprises), there was only a change in the functions and areas of responsibility of the company's divisions. The inviolability of the intra-company structure within a certain time interval was combined with the well-known flexibility of the internal content of structural divisions.
At present, a cardinal rethinking of the very postulate of rigidity is taking place in this matter. Rigid structures are being replaced by flexible ones. When changing the parameters of the external environment, the company changes the very structure of the company. The element of adaptation to changes is not the internal content of the rigid structures of divisions, but the divisions themselves.
The four main questions of organization theory are solved, as we have seen above, in different ways. This gives us grounds to assert that there are at least several approaches to organization theory (economic). Within the framework of this work, the authors will distinguish three such approaches: neoclassical, based on transaction costs and modern. They correspond to different stages of development of the economic system, so it is fair to talk about the history of organization theory (for more details, see 10.1-10.3).
The neoclassical approach to organization theory is based on several fundamental assumptions. These include: 1) limited resources, 2) rational behavior of economic entities and 3) free market transactions.
The first provision does not need special comments, since the limited resources are the most important condition for the existence of the economic system itself (the principle of the limited resources of an economic entity and the boundlessness of its needs).
The following provision goes back to the works of A. Smith. It is to him that the term “economic man” belongs. This subject cannot act otherwise than to seek to maximize its benefits. This ultimately makes his behavior rational. You don't have to look far for examples. Within the framework of the microeconomics course, rational behavior of both the producer (firm) and the consumer is considered. Each of them seeks to maximize their net income (revenue minus costs). As a result, the firm maximizes profit (the difference between revenue (gross income) and total costs), and the consumer maximizes the marginal (additional) utility at a given level of income, comparing his gross income (the total utility received from the use of the good) with the real monetary costs of acquiring this good.
The last proposition - the freeness of market transactions - is also easily proved within the framework of this approach. Competitive environment, market principles allow the firm to rely entirely on the market in determining the selling price of its products after the actual production process. Thus, it seems possible to abstract from the costs associated with the functioning of the market itself and market transactions.
However, the historical process of economic development inevitably undermines the validity of at least some of the above propositions.
Our doubts cannot be attributed to the thesis of limited resources, but other provisions certainly require some adjustment.
This primarily refers to the principle of rational behavior of economic entities. In reality, not all subjects and far from always behave rationally. Science associates this with the possibility of opportunistic behavior, when an economic entity, for a number of reasons, acts irrationally. An example is appropriate here. The firm seems to be supposed to maximize its profit, but for some reason it acts irrationally and therefore does not receive it. The reason for this situation may be, for example, the desire of some top managers to realize their private interests to the detriment of the interests of the company. This is a fairly typical situation. The neoclassical rationalist approach does not actually take into account the private interests of people working in a particular firm. The approach based on transaction costs makes it possible to remove the limitations of the first of the considered approaches.
The proposition that market transactions are free also ceases to correspond to reality at a certain stage of development. A market in which monopolistic or monopsonic, oligopolistic or oligopsonic forces are present objectively cannot be free for economic entities, which should strive to reduce the risk and uncertainty associated with the external environment of an organization that is becoming more and more aggressive. This can only be done by protecting the transactions with some kind of legal agreement (for example, contracts). This is where additional (and very significant) costs appear. But the result is obvious - now the price in the terms of the contract transaction is determined before the start of the production process, and the sale of products becomes guaranteed.
Thus, instead of the provision on free market transactions, there appears a provision on the need to take into account transaction costs (for details, see 3.3).
The further development of the economic system does not fit into the narrow framework of the approach to the theory of organization based on transaction costs. Another is required (the authors call it modern) approach to organization theory.
Its main provisions include all provisions of the approach based on transaction costs. In addition, there are additional fundamental postulates. They concern the definition of the elementary unit (“atom”) of the organization and the way of adaptation economic organization to change.
First, there is a transition from a technological unit in building organizations to an economic unit of building organizations based on business processes (this is true for both neoclassical and transactional approaches).
The way of adaptation also changes. If in the neoclassical and transactional approaches to the theory of organization a rigid structure of the organization was characteristic, then in modern conditions a flexible structure of the organization becomes such.
After considering the main issues of the theory of organization and the main approaches to its study, it is worthwhile to specifically, at least briefly, dwell on A. Bogdanov's tectology as the historical basis of the science of organization theory.
The general organizational science (tectology) of Alexander Alexandrovich Bogdanov was the first scientific work specifically devoted to organizational issues, in which the author formulated the main provisions of the theory of organization. Tectology, which arose at the beginning of our century, actually opened the list of interdisciplinary sciences and served as a methodological basis for a number of other promising areas of knowledge, such as systems theory, systems engineering, synergetics, cybernetics, computer science, and the theory of co-evolution.
Table 1
Basic questions of organization theory
and the main approaches to it
| Determining the size and boundaries of the organization (A) | Ways to organize the elements of an organization (B) |
|
|
| Elementary unit – (“atom”) of an organization (B) | How organizations adapt to change (D) |
|
|
| Reasons leading to the need to change the structure of the organization, restructuring companies (D) | Organization theory concepts |
|
|
|
|
Let's give a definition of tectology. Literally translated from Greek, tectology means “the doctrine of construction”. It is fundamentally important that tectology, unlike other sciences, has an arbitrary variable center of coordinates, or a general point of view on the world of experience. This provision means that in all sciences the question becomes fundamental organization (ordering elements, regardless of their nature (physical, chemical, biological, social, economic)). Consideration of the tektological (organizational) issue allows any science to solve problems defined by its specific subject. According to A. Bogdanov, tectology is a universal natural science.
Tectology methods:
An important place in the teachings of A. Bogdanov belongs to the definition of elements and complexes as organizational units and their combinations. An element is a unit of a complex, system, or organization. A complex is a collection of elements.
Complexes are: 1) organized, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. An example is a firm as a set of structural elements (subdivisions), and the set is greater than the mechanical sum of the elements. Another illustrative example is cooperation (see 1. 2): the emerging combined labor force is more productive than the mechanical sum of individual labor productivity; 2) disorganized, the whole is less than the sum of the parts. An example is a broken large diamond. The sum of the prices of small diamonds (parts of the whole) is many times less than the price of one large one. Another example is decooperation, known for the “swan, crayfish and pike” effect; 3) neutral, the whole is equal to the sum of the parts. Separation of a gold bar into parts. The cost of parts in this case is equal to the sum of the whole ingot of metal.
The central idea of tectology is the idea conjugation. This is the union of two complexes that are in interaction, in which their elements mix, influence each other, combine, move from one complex to another. In this case, two kinds of relations arise:
- organizational (relationships of binding, combining, “glue”), ingression. For the economy, this is a merger of companies, an acquisition big companies smaller ones, the creation of financial and industrial groups (see 9.4),
- disorganizational (destabilization of the system, “solvent”), disingression. For the economy, this is the restructuring of companies in crisis, due to their separation (see 9.3).
In tectology, the following types of connections are distinguished: homogeneous(symmetrical) - parts of the system perform the same functions in it (production units within a linear functional organization, lines in the ranks, horizontal integration), heterogeneous(asymmetric) - parts perform different functions in the system (chief - subordinate, financial and industrial group, vertical integration). These connections are actually elements of the internal environment of the organization (firm, enterprise).
In addition to homogeneous and heterogeneous connections (relations), A. Bogdanov considers the interaction of complexes with the environment (external) through various kinds of regulators. As a result of this interaction, the complex finds balance.
The equilibrium of the complex is an extremely important characteristic of any system. Examples can be given from various fields of natural science. An atom, an electron, a proton, a neutron, a living cell, a cell membrane, a cell nucleus, etc. - their very existence is connected with the fact that they acquire equilibrium (they are in equilibrium with their environment). If the balance violatedand is not restored, the system eventually collapses. That is why none of the above elementary systems (complexes) is eternal.
In addition, A. Bogdanov talks about dynamic equilibrium, when the forces of creation and destruction are balanced in the complex (system).
Economic systems are no exception to this rule. For example, in a firm as an elementary economic system (complex), the forces pushing it to destruction, disintegration into smaller components (one of the possible reasons is the selfish interests of managers or some other groups of personnel) are balanced by forces aimed at preserving the firm (one one of the possible reasons causing the forces of such a direction to act is the unity of the technological chain).
Thus, a complex in dynamic equilibrium at the moment has a net force equal to zero (or close to zero). Detailed in this study guide the life cycle of the organization (2.6) will be considered, which in fact has the theory of finding the equilibrium of the complex with the environment as its methodological basis.
By virtue of the above considerations, all four questions of the theory of organization are most directly related to the acquisition by the complex of dynamic equilibrium as a condition for its existence. The solution of the first question actually allows one to determine the conditions for the equilibrium of the complex with the environment (in statics). The resolution of the second problem makes it possible to add to the previous analysis the equilibrium conditions, taking into account the resultant force that arises inside the organization (complex). The third question of the theory of organization actually concretizes and supplements the conditions of equilibrium, taking into account the ordering of elements within the complex based on other approaches to the elementary unit of organization. And only the solution of the fourth problem of the theory of organization allows one to proceed directly to the dynamic equilibrium of the complex with the environment.
Tectological selection according to A. Bogdanov determines the development of the complex and its adaptation to the environment. The following selection structure is proposed: the object of selection is that which is exposed to the environment; the agent (factor) of selection is that which acts on the object; the basis (basis) of selection is that side of the object on which its preservation or elimination depends. Economic example: the firm - the external environment - the firm's ability to adapt. One can speak, joining the words of A. Bogdanov, about the evolution of animals and their adaptation to the environment. It will be interesting to recall the example of human evolution considered in the introduction.
Types of tectological selection: natural(without a person - self-regulation in the economic system), artificial(with the help of a person - macroeconomic regulation, planning in a company), interior(a way of ordering the elements of an organization), external(determining the boundaries and sizes of the organization), conservative(preservation or non-preservation of the organization), progressive(see below on tectological progress and tectological regression).
Now we can formulate tektological laws: 1) the law of least - the stability of the whole depends on the smallest relative resistances of all its parts at any moment. This law applies to ingression complexes (connection, combination, “glue”). An example is a chain break in the weakest point, a link for which you can pull the entire chain in the economy, a firm also good example in terms of the issue of sustainability based on the definition of a weak link; 2) the law of divergence - complexes diverge, differ from each other due to the primacy of heterogeneity (initial difference), differences in the environment and under the influence of dissimilar changes. Any natural tendency can be paralyzed by other natural tendencies (trends and counter-trends in the economy, for example, the objective tendency of averaging profit rates, which is based on a competitive principle, is weakened or paralyzed by a counter-trend, which is based on a monopolistic principle, leading to the appropriation by monopoly capitals on a sustainable basis profit above average).
Behind any diversity, one should seek comparative uniformity, move from the complex to the simple, from the diversity of the world to its model. When ties are broken, the inevitable divergence of isolated parts should be taken into account in advance.
It should be noted that the principle of divergence is applied in the literal sense: when the divergence is desirable, it is a task (see below the tektological act), when it is undesirable, it must be overcome.
The next problem is the determination of the structural stability of the complex. There are fused and beaded structures (examples are the centralist type of organization and the federal one). In the second case, there is more "resistance" to the external environment, since the organization has a large "border" of contact with it.
The fused structure is favorable for the preservation of the complex with negative selection, the beaded structure - with positive (unfavorable or favorable environmental conditions). In a crisis, the merged structures of the organization are more stable due to the mobilization of the centralizing principle (see the theory of company restructuring in 9.3). Under normal conditions, centralism can act with a negative sign, since it is possible to slow down the technical process and bureaucratize the internal environment.
The greater the uniformity of bonds, the greater the unity (stability) of the complex. Compare competitive and monopolistic markets. Competitive - more sustainable. Monopoly requires regulation from outside. Does a monopolistic market have more contact with the external environment? No, but more unevenness ties (the existence of two economic enclaves - monopolistic and structurally sick).
Organizational forms: egression, degression, ingression.
- Egression- the type of connection between complexes, when it is of a centralist nature (example - solar system or any other cosmogonic system with a center). In an economic system, this is a top-down hierarchy (for example, a firm as a vertical combination of elements).
- degression- an organizational form that provides protection and preservation of the form of more than high level organization (cranial box in relation to the brain). In the economic system - the hierarchy is "on the contrary" (vertical connections are vice versa).
- Ingression- connection, binding, combination (see above). In a firm, there are horizontal links between elements.
Ingression gathers the organization. Egression - concentrates. Degression - fixes the organization.
An example of such organizational forms in A. Bogdanov is the patriarch and the community. Egression is evident - a centralist type of organization, but there is a connection with degression, since the community is a condition for maintaining an organization of a higher level - the leader.
It is possible to consider both the linear-functional and divisional structure of the company from the point of view of various levels of management in the company. Another example is a firm as a condition for maintaining management (managers) and owners.
The next problem is tectological crises. According to A. Bogdanov, they are universal phenomena (recall the cycle business activity, company cycle, product life cycle, etc., living, inanimate matter - cycle and crisis). Crises are disingressions (“solvents” of the organization, disintegration, etc.) or violation of complete disingressions.
The first type of crisis type D(a drop breaks into two, spin off from the firm of independent legal and economic entities, restructuring of the firm). Second - type C- connection of two drops of water (merger, absorption of firms, creation of financial and industrial groups).
A simple sequence of crisis phases - DS, complex - DSSD. An example of the first sequence is a drop of water, the second is the birth of a child, multiple adaptation to the environment, the establishment of a certain balance with the environment. In the economic system: the life cycle of an organization - DSSD - emergence - formation - development - dying or transition to a new quality (for details, see 2.6).
The formation of a new organizational form as a result of the interaction of systems (complexes) occurs within the framework of the tectological act. Phases of Education new organization: indefinite - conjugative (initial connection of complexes), phase of systemic differentiations (emergence of new differential formations), phase of systemic consolidation (differentiated formations are combined into a single whole (new) - the final phase of the tectological act).
In a simpler way, the phases of a tectological act (it is these concepts that we will use) can be described as follows: 1) setting the task (something new has appeared that needs to be comprehended; 2) defining the essence of the task (something needs to be organized or a change needs to be made in the organization) ; 3) problem solving (successive passage of the stages of solving the problem, consolidation new systems).
It is possible to consider a firm from the point of view of a tektological act: 1) conjugation - solving the problems of the size and boundaries of the organization, 2) systemic differentiation - determining the intra-company structure, 3) consolidation - the established firm as a unity of sizes, boundaries and structure.
Structural progress and structural regression. As part of solving this problem, A. Bogdanov considers two types of criteria: 1) types of organization- quantitative, for example, growth in the size of the firm, structural(qualitative), for example, the rationalization of the internal structure and 2) achieving organization (a combination of quantitative and qualitative types of organization, their ratio). Example: business growth leads to a change in the structure of the firm and, in turn, a change in the structure of the firm can become a source of growth in its production. Cause and effect are reversed here.
Thus, all ways of changing the structure of an organization that will be discussed in this tutorial are corporate reengineering, evolutionary ways of restructuring the organizational structure using reengineering technologies, networking (8, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3) and the main methods of organizational design - building organizations on based on transaction costs, based on the allocation of financial units (9, 9.1, 9.1.1, 9.1.2), as well as the restructuring of companies in crisis, mergers, acquisitions of firms and the creation of FIGs (9.3, 9.4, 9.4.1, 9.4 .2, 9.4.3) - all this if the goals set by managers are achieved, it is a manifestation (examples) of tectological (organizational) progress, and if the goals set by managers are not achieved, it becomes examples of tectological (organizational) regression. This, in our opinion, confirms the practical significance of A. Bogdanov's tectology and the possibility of using its categorical and methodological apparatus to solve specific problems of organization theory.
Now we have the right to move on to consideration of other questions and we need to start with the problem of the relationship between ownership and management.
| Previous |
ORGANIZATION THEORY
Short lecture course for students of the specialty
"Management of the organization" of all forms of education
Extract from State standard specialty 080507.65 (061100) "Management of the organization"
| OPD | GENERAL PROFESSIONAL DISCIPLINES | |
| OPD.F.00 | Federal component | |
| GPD.F.04 | ORGANIZATION THEORY. Organization as a system; social organization, economic organizations; organization and management; organization theory and its place in the system of scientific knowledge; the law of synergy; the law of awareness - orderliness; the law of self-preservation; the law of unity of analysis / synthesis /; the law of development; laws of composition and proportionality; specific laws of social organization; principles of static organization; principles of dynamic organization; rationalization principles; design of organizational systems; development of organizational and organizational and managerial thought; organizational culture; subjects of organizational activity. |
| 1 Organization theory and its place in the system of scientific knowledge 1. Object and subject of organization theory. 2. Functions of the theory of organization as a science. Methodology of organization theory. 3. Organization as a system. System types. concept production system. 4. Theory of the life cycle of the organization. |
| 2 Evolution of views on the organization 1. Classical management theory. its main directions. 2.F.Taylor, A.Fayol, M.Weber. 3. A. Bogdanov "Tectology". 4. Modern view of the organization (R. Likert, G. Simon, Glacier theory, G. Mintzberg, I. Ansoff, D. North) |
| 3 Internal and external environment of the organization 1. Mission and goals of the organization. 2. Internal variables of the organization. Resource priority. 3. Environmental factors. Their influence on various aspects of the organization's activities. 4. The complexity and mobility of the external environment. Essence of uncertainty, its levels. 5. Styles of interaction of the organization with the external environment. |
| 4 Laws of organization 1. Concepts of dependence and patterns. 2. Laws of organization - basic (of the first level): the law of synergy, self-preservation, development. 3. Laws of the second level: information orderliness, unity of analysis and synthesis, laws of composition and proportionality.4. Specific laws of social organization. |
| 5 Social and economic organization 1. The concept of social organization. Levels of development of social organization. 2. Classification of social organizations. 3. Group communications as the basis of the social system. 4.Features of socio-economic organizations. 5. Types of economic organizations. |
| 6 Organization and management 1. The nature and essence of managing an organization as a complex system. 2. The structure of the elements of management of the organization, the principles of the formation of a functional standard level of management. 3.Self-organization and self-management. 4.Organization and manageability. |
| 7 Organizational structure. Concept, types of organizational structures 1. Division of labor. Repetition work. 2. The concept of control coverage and control coverage models. 3. The concept of departmentalization. 4. Centralization and decentralization. Delegation of powers. 5. Structures of organizational management. |
| 8 Organizational design 1. Systems approach in the design of organizational systems. 2.Methodology of organizational design. 3. Criteria for the effectiveness of organizational structures. Analysis of organizational structures. 4. Organizational modeling (typing, systems theory, chaos theory, synergetics, cybernetics) |
| 9 Organizational culture 1. Concept organizational culture firms. 2. Organizational culture as a system, its elements. 3. Dominant and subculture. 4. Strong and weak organizational culture.5. Management of organizational culture.6. Cross-national aspect of consideration of organizational culture. 7. Models of national business cultures (Klukon-Strodbeck, Hofstede, Hampden-Turner-Trompenaars, Lefebvre) |
| 10 Development of organizational and organizational and managerial thought 1. The main functions of the development and improvement of the organization. 2. Types of control. 3. Organizational audit and its principles. 4. Modern trends in the development of organizations |
Topic 1 Theory of organization and its place in the system of scientific knowledge
1. Object and subject of organization theory.
2. Functions of the theory of organization as a science. Methodology of organization theory.
3. Organization as a system. System types. The concept of a production system.
4. Theory of the life cycle of the organization.
Most people almost all of their conscious life associated with certain organizations, being their employees, or coming into contact with them. These organizations can be economic, educational, research, etc. This list can be continued for quite a long time, but it is important for us to emphasize the deep and extensive connections of a person with an organization in the process of society's life.
The purpose of teaching this course is to comprehend the relationship between a person and an organization, the place of organization in modern life.
Organization theory (TO) is a management discipline. From other disciplines such as branch management, territorial state administration, etc. she is different object. So about the object of maintenance is an organization.
In TO, the organization is considered as an object with an ordered internal structure, and acting in the external environment.
Thus, the organization as an object of TO is an integral complex of interrelated elements (property of organizational complexity) and a special unity with the external environment.
This object has its own characteristics in comparison with the objects of other disciplines. These features manifest themselves in many ways.
Firstly, the organization as an object of management is of particular importance, because organization is the main link in the socio-economic system of the country (it is in the organization that different kinds products, services). The state of the organization (the quality of its functioning) determines the state of industries and the entire country. Second, organizations are constituent parts other objects and the country as a whole. Those. if there is no organization as an object, then there is no industry as an object and no territory as an object. Thirdly, it is the most complex of all objects, it is the most significant. It is in organizations that the process of manufacturing a product or service is carried out.
Organization (in the scientific literature) is presented in the form of 2 concepts:
1) - organization as a process,
2) - organization as a phenomenon.
Organization as a process is:
Designing organizational processes;
Patterns of organizational processes;
Organizational culture, traditions of organizational processes.
Organization as a phenomenon:
Legal regulations;
Social culture of organizations;
Subjects of organizational activity, i.e. elements of organizations.
Organization as a process means that an organization is a complex of management actions aimed at forming elements of an organization, connecting elements and improving these links. Within a particular organization, there is a process (processes) of transforming the inputs of the organization (raw materials, labor resources, information ...) into outputs ( finished products or service, information…).
Organization as a phenomenon means that the organization is a material object, usually limited in space.
organization theory as academic discipline necessary to ensure the quality of the special theoretical training of economists and managers and the effectiveness of the organizational activities of specialists and managers, both those working in enterprises and institutions of various forms of ownership and sectors of the national economy, and employees in state, central and local authorities management. Mastering the basics of organization theory allows you to see any problem through a system of organizational relations and find a way to solve it through organizational and constructive work.
Organization theory is a kind of philosophy of organizational activity. It equips with knowledge of organizational laws, principles, rules that require the ability to implement in practice for the development of modern organizational thinking. Knowledge of the theory of organization serves to develop the skills of a systematic and integrated approach to solving practically significant problems.
The theory of organization is not only needed as a foundation in which general cultural, ideological and methodological elements of training a future specialist in the field of management are laid, but also provides constructive knowledge in the form of certain methods, techniques and methods, the knowledge necessary to find solutions to specific organizational problems.
The subject of study of the theory of organization is the analysis of the processes occurring in organizational systems, including the patterns and problems of the development of organizations, which are a purposeful association into groups of individuals for joint activities. It is in the process of cooperation that one can achieve the highest results and direct the collective efforts of people to achieve common goals.
The purpose of the course "Organization Theory" is to study the laws and patterns of the emergence, functioning and development of the organization when considering it as a social system.
The textbook presents a summary of the lectures on the course "Organization Theory" and can be used by students in conjunction with "Design on the course of organization theory". You can consolidate and test the knowledge gained with the help of tests and practical tasks published in the training manual "Guidelines for studying the course "Organization Theory" with a modular training system", demonstrate independence in the preparation and discussion of issues allocated for independent work.
Lecture 1. The theory of organization and its place in the system of scientific knowledge.
The subject and method of organization theory.
The first ideas about the theory of organization.
The concept of "organization".
Organizational theories.
Organization models.
Organization theory - a system of scientific knowledge that summarizes organizational experience and reflects the essence of organizational relations, their internal necessary connections, the laws of functioning and development.
The subject of organization theory - both general and particular patterns that operate in complex organizational systems, organizational relationships, patterns that form connections and interactions between various integral formations and their structural components.
Organization theory involves a macro-study of organizations, since here the organization as a whole is taken as a unit. Finding the optimal option for coordinating its resources has been and remains the main goal of management science.
Historically, one can trace the evolution of theoretical concepts that determine the essence of the organizations themselves, the role and main criteria used to evaluate the activities of various organizational structures. These theories appeared together with A. Bogdanov's tectology, but independently of it. Organizational theories set the task of developing principles, rules, recommendations, procedures for management activities at any given moment, while for tektology it was important to discover objective organizational mechanisms that would not change in different situations.
The instrument of theoretical research is the scientific method (from the Greek. methodos - way of research, theory, doctrine). Under method understood as an ordered activity to achieve a specific goal, a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical knowledge of reality.
Fundamental task organization theory - the study of the influence that individuals and groups of people have on the functioning of the organization, on the changes taking place in it, on ensuring effective purposeful activity and obtaining the necessary results.
Consider the place of organization theory in connection with such sciences as: psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology and economics.
Contribution psychology in the theory of organization manifests itself to the greatest extent through the study and prediction of the behavior of the individual, determining the possibilities for changing people's behavior. Psychology reveals conditions that hinder or promote rational actions and actions of people. Recently, the base of precisely those psychological studies that are directly related to human behavior in an organization has expanded.
Research in the field sociology expand the methodological foundations of organization theory by studying social systems where individuals play their roles and enter into certain relationships with each other. Of fundamental importance is the study of group behavior, especially in formal and complex organizations.
The questions that arise in the process of functioning of the organization are answered by a relatively new scientific discipline - social Psychology . When studying interpersonal behavior, the main guideline is how changes occur, in what forms they are implemented, and how barriers to their perception are overcome. Of exceptional importance for organizations are studies devoted to the assessment and analysis of changes in people's attitudes, forms of communication and ways to meet individual needs in a group activity.
Contribution anthropology in the theory of organization due to the fact that this branch of knowledge, among other problems, studies the function of the culture of society, i.e., a kind of mechanism for selecting the values and norms of the past, transmitting them to living generations, armed with certain stereotypes of consciousness and behavior.
Relationship of organization theory with economics is determined by the objective need to form the goals and strategy of organizations as the basis for their construction, ensuring their internal and external interactions. Studies of property relations, market and state regulation, macro- and microeconomic aspects of the functioning of business entities, problems of efficiency and its meters, methods of economic incentives are directly related not only to the orientation of organizations, but also to all aspects of their effective activity.
Of particular importance is the connection between organization theory and legal science , studying law as a system of social norms and various aspects of law enforcement. Such industries have a direct influence on the formation of key sections of the theory of organization legal science as civil, labor and economic law.
An important role is played by modern information systems that link together all the processes of the functioning of organizations and the actual management activities, as well as Informatics as a science that studies the laws, regularities, methods, ways and means of implementing information processes in these systems. Organizations should be structured in such a way as to maximize the capabilities of the management system for processing and transmitting the necessary information, to achieve the required efficiency in making, implementing and monitoring management decisions.
The most important research method organization theory is induction- a logical conclusion from individual facts to a generalization. The study historically and logically begins with the allocation of a specific object - "individual" and the consideration of "general" and "special" in it. Induction is implemented in three main forms:
generalizing and descriptive;
statistical;
abstract analytical.
Generalizing descriptive form assumes that all relationships are quite symbolic and it is necessary to find a formulation that is suitable for a multitude of heterogeneous elements.
statistical form consists in the quantitative accounting of factors and the frequency of their recurrence. It allows you to establish the nature and stability of the organizational relationships of structural elements in various systems, to assess their level of organization and disorganization.
Abstract-analytical form helps to formulate the laws of phenomena, their relationships and constant trends. Essentially, abstraction is the highest level of research. Thanks to it, distraction occurs, the removal of complicating moments, “it reveals in its pure form the basis of these phenomena, i.e. precisely that constant trend that is hidden under their apparent complexity. In order to understand the regularity of the phenomenon, concreteness must be revealed under indifferent symbols.
The beginning of the scientific formation of organizational thought in society is considered to be the period associated with the life and work of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427 - 347 BC). The classical works of Plato "State", "Laws", "Politics" laid the foundations of not only philosophy, but also the organization of the state and law.
Preoccupied with the problem a better life people”, Plato tried to solve it by creating a model of the state, personifying the mind. Plato drew an analogy between a just person and a just state. Justice, according to Plato, is the ability to mind your own business and not interfere in the affairs of others, and this requires hierarchical subordination in the name of the whole. He believed that in just states the hierarchy is established from birth and cannot be changed.
Considering the forms of government, Plato singled out the following: monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, tyranny, and Plato considered only monarchy and aristocracy to be fair. Others he considered as a long civil strife.
In his opinion, both people who are unenlightened and ignorant of the truth, and those who have been left to engage in self-improvement all their lives are not suitable for governing the state.
In an ideal state, they try to eliminate wealth and poverty: one leads to luxury, the other to baseness and atrocities. Plato singled out 4 virtues of an ideal state:
wisdom - sound decisions (knowledge helps to reason);
courage is a kind of safety;
prudence is a kind of order, power over certain pleasures and lusts.
justice - mind your own business and do not interfere with others.
The philosopher attached great importance to unity, which firmly holds the state together into a monolithic whole.
In his works, Plato touched upon important milestones in the organization of the state, which, despite the utopian nature of his ideas, bore fruit.
Plato's Disciple Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) in the works "Metaphysics", "Ethics", "Categories" he continued to search for the principles and patterns of streamlining people's lives in society. The primacy and supremacy of form over content (i.e. matter) of the soul over the body, mind over feeling, right over lawlessness and production, good over evil is highly characteristic of both the first and second philosophy of Aristotle.
Both Plato and Aristotle recognized socially useful political activity as the highest expression of human culture.
Aristotle appealed to common sense, saw support for the harmony inherent in nature, asserted the independence of the individual and the independence of the mind from divine predestination, which is especially important in the state, political sphere.
According to Aristotle, unity is unattainable in principle, since only an individual is an indivisible particle, and the state is a kind of multiplicity, a composite complexity of fundamentally heterogeneous elements.
Aristotle introduced a classification of forms of political structure, including three correct (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and three incorrect (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy) models of organizing people's activities. At the same time, he did not consider the state of true virtue either the monarchy or the aristocracy. Many years of research and accumulated experience convinced him of the optimality of the polity - a constitutional moderate democratic republic.
It should be noted that before Confucius (551 - 479 BC) sought to streamline social processes, systematize knowledge about the rational organization of society. He developed the concept of a noble person not by origin, but through upbringing and self-improvement.
The lack of stability and the influence of bureaucracy predetermined the emergence and direction of Confucianism.
The future teachings of Confucius were based on several ethical and philosophical concepts.
In concept Ren ( humanity, philanthropy) and Lee(rules, etiquette) - these two components reflected the views of Confucius on the state structure and social organization of society.
The second concept, the essence of which is “to be faithful (an honest dignitary, honor the rulers”), covered a whole range of problems related to the management system and, above all, to the norms of the relationship between the head of state and officials.
Third concept Zhong-yun known as "following the middle path", in which Confucius warned against being carried away by extremes.
According to the scheme of government developed by Confucius, the management of the state and society was based on the rules to which he attached great importance:
strict regulation of service in the state;
organization of the state apparatus as a single family.
taking into account all contradictions when making decisions;
ore separation;
caste management.
Thus, Confucius, two and a half thousand years ago, expressed universal organizational ideas that are still applied today.
The term " organization"(from Lat - to communicate a harmonious appearance, to arrange) is interpreted in science as the achievement of structuredness, internal order, consistency of interaction with respect to independent parts in a system object.
The organization is characterized by the orderliness of the parts that form a unity, the reverse effect is such that the whole contributes to the preservation of the parts.
The above definitions give grounds to consider the organization both as a process of ordering elements and as a subject of social activity.
From a scientific point of view, the concept of "organization" has several semantic meanings:
organization as a set, as a system of relationships, activities, rights, duties, roles that take place in the process of joint work there. In this case organization considered like a system with an objectified structure;
organization as a phenomenon is the physical combination of real elements to carry out a program or purpose.
organization as a process is a set of actions leading to the formation and improvement of the relationship between the parts of the whole.
organization as a society considers an organization as a group of people with common goals, an organization is a social community.
Organizations can be either formal or informal.
Formal organizations- These are organizations that are officially registered and operate on the basis of existing legislation and established regulations.
Informal organizations- organizations that operate outside the framework of the law, while groups arise spontaneously, but people interact with each other quite regularly. Informal organizations exist in every formal organization.
In recent decades, the study of organizations has become the main task of research conducted jointly by representatives of various scientific disciplines. It gradually turned into an independent scientific field - organization theory.
Within the framework of organization theory, the following theories are distinguished:
Classical Organizational Theory - became the first systematized theory that proposed mechanistic constructions, the use of which must necessarily ensure the effective functioning of the organization. Classical organization theory is based on the following assumptions:
functional hierarchy;
vertical and horizontal specialization;
the priority of internal factors of production in relation to the sphere of consumption;
labor and capital are the main driving forces in the economy. The basis of classical ideas about the organization is the so-called mechanistic approach, which assumes that the organization is a well-functioning machine.
The main contribution to the formation of classical organizational theory belongs to F. Taylor. The significance of F. Taylor's contribution lies in the large-scale application of the analytical method to the improvement of production management. Setting as the main goal the maximum increase in labor productivity, he provided for specific rational measures. It is impossible not to notice in his approach the predominance of mechanism, a purely formal interpretation of social organization in the conditions of production, which fundamentally rejects relations that are not prescribed by the official, functional content.
The classical theory approached the role of man in the organization mechanistically, treating the individual not as a subject, but simply as a factor of production, while his social nature was completely ignored or distorted.
Theories of organizational behavior. Classical organizational theory made it possible to establish technical and economic ties and dependencies of various factors of production. However, the role and importance of the human factor was not sufficiently taken into account. This is due to the formation of a new organizational theory. The criterion for the success of work, according to the theory of human relations, is considered to be an increase in the efficiency of the organization by improving human resources.
The further development of organizational theories is accompanied by persistent attempts to combine classical organizational theory and the theory of human relations.
An example of such a synthesis is admin theorynegative behavior, the ideas of which were proposed by C. Bernard and G. Simon.
C. Bernard proposed a theory of power, calling it elements of formal organization. He linked power to the exchange of information. In his opinion, power is perceived by employees when commands are considered legal, legitimate and necessary. He owns the famous perception theory, according to which the leader is empowered by people who want to be controlled.
G. Simon considered organizations as systems in which people are "mechanisms that make decisions." The essence of the activities of managers, administrators, their power over subordinates is to create the actual and value prerequisites on which the decisions of each member of the organization are based.
In general, the theory of administrative behavior emphasizes the importance of rules and established procedures aimed at maintaining rational behavior within the organization.
Theory of institutions and institutional change. Institutional theory tries to answer why organizations take certain forms and how similar they can be to one another.
Institutions are humanly designed formal (laws, constitutions) and informal (voluntary codes of conduct) constraints and coercive factors that structure human interaction. Institutional development theory emphasizes that major institutional change occurs slowly because institutions are the result of historical change, shaping individual behavior. New institutions appear when society sees an opportunity to make a profit that cannot be obtained under the existing institutional system.
From an institutional point of view, the structure of organizations is seen not only as a rational process, but also as a process of external and internal pressure, as a result of which organizations in one area become similar to each other over time. Based on this, the strategic choice or attempt to control the members of the organization is seen as determined by the institutional order of the community in which the organization belongs.
Population-ecological (evolutionary) theory. This direction proposes to transfer analogies from the sphere of biological evolutionary theory to the field of organization theories. The object of the study is the population of organizations that are characterized by a common structure, i.e. organizational form
Representatives of the population-ecological theory argue that environmental factors select those features of organizations that are best suited for environment. In other words, the organization adapts to the environment, while the latter itself chooses which organizations to continue to exist.
Tectology of Bogdanov. The main idea of tectology is the identity of natural and social phenomena from an organizational point of view. Each element of nature or society must be considered as a system for which both the relations between parts and the relations of the whole with the external environment are important. A. Bogdanov considered the main thing for tectology to be the establishment of objective patterns of the emergence, functioning and destruction of systems or organizational complexes.
A. Bogdanov considered the organization as a whole, which is greater than the sum of its parts. Organization, according to Bogdanov, is a network of production processes of its components, and structure is a special space-time image of the produced components.
Models of organizations defined by relevant organizational theories:
mechanistic model - (F. Taylor, A. Fayol, M. Weber);
natural organization - (T. Parsons, R. Merton, A. Etzioni);
Functional organizations are considered as an objective self-improving process in which the subjective principle is present, but not dominated. The goal is only one of the foundations for the functioning of the organization;
community organization - (E. Mayo). The main regulator of functioning is the norms of behavior accepted in the organization;
sociotechnical model - (A.Rice, E.Trist). Based on the dependence of intra-group relations on production technology;
interactionistic model - (C. Bernard). An organization is seen as a system of long-term interactions between its members, who bring their own expectations and values into the organization;
cybernetic model – (S.Beer, D.Forrester, S.Young). involves the construction of a complete mathematical model of the organization, taking into account numerous feedbacks;
institutional model - (D. Nordt). Forms and behavior of the organization is determined by customs, traditions, norms;
conflict model - (R. Hall) the organization has many conflicting goals and operates in conditions of conflicting interests of various members of the organization and its groups;
organic model - (T. Burns, D. Stalker). Society is compared to a living organism in which all parts are interdependent. This model assumes the processes of self-regulation, allowing to keep the properties and functions of the organization relatively constant in a rapidly changing external environment;
process model - (A. Bogdanov). Society is viewed as a continuous process of connections (associations) and separations (dissociations), society does not have a stable structure;
problem model - (V.Franchuk). Organizational problems are not seen as obstacles, but as an expression of natural needs and opportunities for their implementation. A problematic organization is characterized by flexibility, the ability to restructure and unstable conditions, for example, during the transition to a market economy, the organization mechanism will work more clearly, including in structural terms. Compared to the target model, the problem model is more complete and general, because extends not only to artificial, but also to natural organizations.
Foreword
The importance and necessity of studying the theory of organization in higher educational institutions of Russia was manifested as a result of the transitivity of its economy into market relations. The theory of organization occupies a special place among the disciplines of management and other related economic specialties. There was not a single enterprise, not a single institution, not a single public association in the world that did not use the general laws and principles for the creation, development and functioning of an organization as a whole. Therefore, organization theory is faced with the task of studying social organizations and relationships within these organizations, as well as their relationship with the environment.
Organization theory is considered as one of the fundamental elements of the scientific basis of management. The organization is presented not only as a tool for achieving entrepreneurial goals, but also as an object of study. The main provisions, definitions and semantic variants of the concept of "organization", the methodology of scientific research of organizational processes and organizational relations are analyzed. The organization is considered as a system represented by an objectified structure, and as a process, that is, as a management function. Special importance is attached to self-organization.
An organization is a complex organism. It intertwines and coexists with the interests of the individual and groups, incentives and restrictions, rigid technology and innovation, unconditional discipline and free creativity, regulatory requirements and informal initiatives. Organizations have their own image, culture, traditions and reputation. They develop confidently when they have a sound strategy and use resources efficiently. Without understanding the essence of organizations and the patterns of their development, one cannot manage them, nor effectively use their potential, nor develop modern technologies their activities. Why organizations are needed, how they are created and developed, on what principles they are built, why and how they change, what opportunities open up, why their members act this way and not otherwise - the organization theory is called upon to answer these questions, based on a generalization of the latest world experience.
This manual presents the well-known provisions of the theory of organization, as well as the results of author's research, partially published in scientific journals. In accordance with the requirements of the educational standard, the main organizational laws and principles are considered. The authors also sought to pay more attention to promising and problematic issues of organization theory.
A significant place is given to the analysis of the most famous organizational theories (classical, neoclassical), as well as ideas of modern organizational trends. The concepts that characterize the structure of the organization, the basic principles of building organizational structures, the problematic issues of the evolution of organizational structures and the organization as a whole as a subject of the sociocultural process are explored. The main forms of interorganizational integration are given, the ideas of organizational culture as a system-forming factor of a modern organization are considered.
The study of the theory of organization provides an increase not only in the quality of theoretical training, but also in the effectiveness of the organizational activities of specialists and managers working in organizations of various industries and areas of the market economy. Studying the course "Theory of Organization" equips future managers with knowledge of organizational laws and principles necessary for the formation of modern organizational thinking, practical skills.
The manual is compiled on the basis of lectures and practical exercises, which are read and conducted by the authors at the Magnitogorsk State University.
Chapter 1.
Fundamentals of Organization Theory
1.1. The theory of organization and its place in the system of scientific knowledge
1.1.1. Organization Theory as a Science
Organization theory (hereinafter TO) studies modern organizations (enterprises, institutions, public associations) and the relationships that arise within these organizations, as well as the behavior of organizations in the external environment.
An organization can be compared to a living organism. At present, the organization is acquiring all the features of an independent organism, struggling for survival and a comfortable existence in the market.
The theory of organization is the science of the basic laws governing the life of organizations as real objects of the surrounding reality (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Organization theory is a science
The theory of organization occupies a special place in a number of academic disciplines of the specialty "Organization Management". Each person consciously or unconsciously participates in organizational processes. As for management, the organization (enterprise), on the one hand, is the environment for the manager's activity, on the other hand, the organization (organization) is one of the main management functions (Fig. 2). The organization as a management function is aimed at combining human, financial and material resources.
Rice. 2. Organizations as a phenomenon and as a process
Organization theory is one of the management sciences, closely related to the sciences:
– natural – since the theory of organization is a source of ideas and organizational experience, it draws a lot of information for understanding general organizational patterns from biology, chemistry, physics;
– public - especially with the system of social sciences, having a positive influence on the development of theory social management, management of the national economy, theory government controlled;
– mathematical - these sciences provide tools for quantitative assessment of organizational connections and relationships.
Organization theory draws on research in various areas: sociology of labor(the theory of motivation and motivation of staff to conscious work, taking into account the ratio of incentives and factors of job satisfaction, the effectiveness of various methods of material and moral encouragement), psychology(when evaluating the role of the individual in the team and the behavior of individuals in the process of organizational activity), social psychology(patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to their presence in social groups, psychological characteristics of these groups). A contribution to the theory of organization was made by the science of cybernetics - the science of the general laws governing the processes of control and transmission of information in machines, living organisms and society. Relationship of organization theory with informatics is explained by the fact that the subject and result of the work of the management part of the organization is information (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Connection of TO with other sciences
Consequently, the theory of organization should be considered as a complex scientific discipline that has absorbed the achievements of related social sciences, as a result of which a wide range of organizational disciplines has been formed in science: organization of entrepreneurship, organization of scientific research, organization of labor, organization of production, organization of management (Fig. 4 ).
Rice. 4. Relationship of TO with related sciences
All organizational sciences are based on general laws, patterns and principles. The theory of organization establishes categories common to all these sciences, develops the forms and methods of organization, and equips scientists with them. Organization theory is directly related to a number of related disciplines: organizational behavior, personnel management, strategic, financial, production and innovation management, quality management, marketing, logistics.
So, organization theory as a scientific discipline studies the general properties, laws and patterns of creation, development, functioning and liquidation of the organization as a whole. The provisions of the theory of organization are based on economic laws and the laws of other sciences: systems theory, cybernetics, control theory, although it relies on laws that are unique to it.
1.1.2. Object, subject and methods of organization theory
The theory of organization as an independent field of knowledge has its own conceptual apparatus, object and subject of study (Fig. 5).
The object (phenomenon that science investigates) of the theory of organization: social organizations, that is, organizations that unite people.
The subject (defines what this science does, what it studies) of organization theory: organizational relations between workers about joint work, expressing the forms of association of people and material factors of production, providing links between the technical side of the activities of organizations and property relations that develop in organizations of various types.
Rice. 5. Object and subject of TO
Rice. 6. Maintenance methods
The methods of science of organization theory are an ordered activity to achieve a certain goal (Fig. 6). The main methods of organization theory include:
- inductive (from the singular to the universal);
- statistical (quantitative accounting of factors and the frequency of their repetition: the study of phenomena using the methods of probability theory, groupings, averages, indices, graphic images, which helps to find stable relationships between organizational relations);
- abstract-analytical (mental selection of the essential properties of the subject, abstraction from particulars, which makes it possible to draw up a generalized picture of the phenomenon under study);
– comparative method(selection of similar organizations as objects of study to clarify the processes of change, the dynamics of the phenomenon under study).
To solve specific problems, science uses systems approach(a systematized method of thinking, according to which the process of making and justifying decisions is based on determining the overall goal of the system and the consistent subordination of its many subsystems, plans for their development, indicators and standards of work).
1.1.3. Functions of Organization Theory
Organization theory (as a science and academic discipline) performs the most important functions:
– cognitive - manifests itself in the disclosure of the processes of organization and self-organization of social systems, natural tendencies organizational development, speakers of various social phenomena and events)
– methodological - since the theory of organization is a complex, integrating science and explores organizational relations at the macro and micro levels as systemic formations, it is a methodological basis for private theories that study aspects of organizational activity);
– rational organizing generalization of the experience of organizational activity, development of optimal models of organization and structures, definitions of social technologies;
– prognostic - allows you to predict organizational phenomena and events (Fig. 7).
Rice. 7. Functions of the theory of organization
1.2. The evolution of organization theory
1.2.1. Formation and development of organization theory
The theory of organization as an independent discipline emerged from sociology (the doctrine of society; the science that studies social structures, their elements, social processes), which, as an independent science, developed in the 19th century. and stood out from philosophy (the science of the most general patterns of development of nature and society, focused on developing views on the relationship of man with the world around him).
Frontiers of Organization Theory are determined by a combination of established features, which is explained by two opposite approaches to describing the development of an organization:
1) "closed - open system" - characterizes the organization as a system and reflects the development of managerial thought from a mechanistic idea of the organization (closed) to a holistic (open). From the beginning of the XX century. until the 1960s, organization problems were solved in terms of closed systems. Issues of the business environment, competition, sales, etc., which determine the external environment for the enterprise, were not considered. With the development of the market, it became obvious that the internal dynamics of organizations is formed under the influence of external events, therefore, the theory of organization begins to consider the organization as an open system in the unity of all elements that perceive changes in the external environment and react to them.
2) "rational - social thinking" characterizes the nature of the organization in the direction from the rational to the social. "Rational thinking" means that there is a clear perspective of the organization and its goals are clearly and unambiguously defined, for example, machine-building enterprise aims to maximize profits from increasing production efficiency, then top management can only choose the means that lead to achievement, i.e. only accepted rational decision. "Social thinking" means ambiguity in setting goals and making specific decisions to improve production efficiency.
From the point of view of the noted approaches, four stages in the development of organization theory are distinguished (Fig. 8):
Rice. 8. Stages of development of the theory of organization
1. 1900–1930 - the era of "closed systems and a rational individual." The main representatives of the theory of organization of that time: Max Weber, Henri Fayol, Frederic Taylor. The approach they developed is focused on organizational and technical improvements in the organization by increasing the efficiency of internal functions.
2. 1930–1960 - the period of "closed systems and the social individual". A group of theorists - Anthony Mayo, Douglas McGregor, Chester Bernard developed the issues of closed systems management, based on internal human relations and non-economic motivation of workers.
3. 1960–1975 - period " open systems and rational individual. The main contributions were made by Alfred Chandler, Paul Lawrence, Jay Lorsch, taking a step forward, considering the organization as part of a higher level system, and a step back, returning to mechanistic ideas about a person.
4. 1975 - present - "the period of open systems and the social individual": there is a return to social thinking, but within the framework of open systems. The leader of modern organization theory is James March.
1.2.2. Fundamental Ideas of Organization Theory
F. Taylor(1911) in his fundamental work "Principles of Scientific Management" defined the principles that formed the basis of classical organization theory:
– division of labor in the broad sense of the word, both the worker and the manager are responsible for any one function;
– functional guidance - replacement of the power of one foreman by functional administration, each of which gives instructions to the worker within the limits of his competence;
– measurement of labor measurement of working time using "time units";
– tasks-prescriptions - exemplary instructions for performing specific tasks;
– incentive programs - performance premium above the norm;
– motivation - self-interest is the driving force;
– the role of individual abilities - a distinction is made between the abilities of workers (working for remuneration in the present) and managers (for the sake of remuneration in the future).
Principles of organization A. Fayol for effective work organizations:
- clear goals;
- one center of subordination (unity of control) and one center of control (unity of control);
- the use of Fayol's "bridge" in the chain of subordination (^);
– equality of rights and obligations;
- rational division of labor;
– definition of responsibility for the results of work;
- Opportunities for taking the initiative. Bureaucracy(rule of civil servants: accuracy, discipline, responsibility) M. Weber, who developed the principles for building an ideal organization structure:
– definition of the tasks and responsibilities of each official on the basis of the division of labor;
- the organization is built on the principles of hierarchy - strict subordination;
- the activities of the organization are regulated on the basis of instructions and rules that determine the responsibility of everyone;
- management of the organization excludes personal emotions;
- Appointments are based on qualifications and merit.
As a result of Hawthorne experiment by E. Mayo at the plant of the Western Electric Company (1924-1927), the “school of human relations” was developed and conclusions were drawn that contradicted the concept of the “rational worker” (the workers felt special attention to themselves as participants in the experiment, as a result of which labor productivity increased, and not because of improved illumination of workplaces):
- the division and rationing of labor does not always lead to increased productivity;
- employees are more responsive to the social influence of their peers, and not to the control measures of top management;
- the manager must be a professional in human relations - understand the needs of people, listen to problems, be able to give the right advice, convince them to accept changes.
C. Bernard and targeted organizations: The elements of an organization are both people and technology, and focusing on one does not lead to optimization. The essence of his ideas:
- cooperation is an effective way to overcome physiological and biological limitations, cooperation leads to coordinated effective actions;
– the success of an organization depends on the satisfaction of its members;
- organizations can be formal and informal (as the protection of individuals in front of the formal one);
- power is an information connection (team) - as the staff decides whether or not to comply with orders.
D. McGregor and Theory × – Theory Y. The book "The Human Side of Entrepreneurship" is devoted to issues of practical management: the manager builds his behavior with subordinates in accordance with his personal ideas about employees and their abilities.
According to the theory × (direct application of power): every person has a natural reluctance to work, so he avoids the expenditure of labor where possible; therefore people must be forced; people try to avoid responsibility and prefer to be led; most of all, people desire personal peace and need protection.
In accordance with the Y theory (subordination as a partnership): the expenditure of physical and spiritual strength at work is as natural as during rest - a person does not refuse to perform duties; the threat of punishment is not an incentive - people are endowed with the ability to self-control and self-government; the reward for the activity corresponds to the tasks performed; creativity is very common among the population, but due to highly developed technologies it is hidden (Fig. 9).
Rice. 9. Fundamental ideas of organization theory
A. Chandler in the book "Strategy and Structure" (1962) found that with changes in the strategy of companies, their organizational structure also changes. The need for strategic change is dictated by the demands of the external environment.
J. Thomson in Organizations in Action (1964) theoretical background interconnections environment and organizational structures, showing the difference between closed (internally oriented) and open organizations.
In 1967, a study of the influence of the external environment on the organization was conducted by teachers at the Harvard Business School P. Lawrence and J. Lorsch, results in The Organization and Its Environment: they looked at organizational structures and management systems, comparing companies that perform best in a dynamic business (specialty plastics) with those that perform best in a stable, low-changing industry (containers). It was found that firms that are characterized by stability use a functional organization chart and simple control systems. On the contrary, leaders in dynamic production have more decentralized form organizations and complex systems management. The results obtained became the basis for the formation of the concept of the organization as an open system.
R. Cyert, J. March, G. Simon put forward the concept of "Organization as a wastebasket" (a model of irrational decision-making): decision makers do not work in conditions of perfect knowledge, hence uncertainty arises, which is the normal state of affairs. This model is applicable to the organizational structure known as organized anarchy, example: universities, research organizations (technologies are unclear, staff turnover is “come and go”).
1.2.3. Development of modern organization theory
Modern organization theory is developing in three directions (Fig. 10):
1) situational approach there is no single correct solution (each type of management situation and tasks to be solved has its own optimal requirements for the state of the organization, strategy and structure);
2) ecological approach argues that among organizations the fittest survives, there is a process of natural selection and replacement of the organization (the effectiveness of the organization is determined by the ability to survive); the role of the environment is absolute, management does not have a special impact on the ability to survive; since resources are limited, some organizations will survive, others will cease to exist (in modern models of organizational ecology, special attention is paid to mechanisms that provide structural changes in organizations);
Rice. 10. Directions for the development of modern organization theory
3) organizational learning approach – recognition of two types of learning: single loop learning (normal staff training that increases the ability of the organization to achieve its goals) and double loop learning is an organized process of self-learning of the organization, which leads to a complete rethinking of the experience of the organization and its learning through this (the flexibility of the organizational structure and remuneration systems, free exchange of information and experience, favorable climate for staff development and training).
1.2.4. Modern organizational paradigm
The modern organizational paradigm is associated with the integration of areas of human activity, including the convergence of organization theory, systems theory, management theory (cybernetics), synergetics.
Systems theory studies the essence of integrity and systemicity, the properties of the whole and its parts, i.e., the organization of some stable object, the integrity of which is the system.
Cybernetics studies the problems of formation and transmission of control actions to achieve a given state of a system of arbitrary nature, that is, to achieve a certain level of its organization.
Synergetics studies the mechanisms of interaction between the elements of a system in the process of its self-organization and self-development.
Exploring the methods of managing socio-economic systems from cybernetic positions, it can be shown that with a certain development of these methods, external criteria become part of the management system. In this case, the output of the system closes, and it goes into the mode of self-development. At the same time, goals cease to be the main criteria for management. Such a system becomes the object of research in synergetics.
There is an ever deeper and more productive interpenetration of systems theory, organization theory, cybernetics and synergetics as they develop. However, this circumstance creates the problem of identifying these sciences. An analysis of this problem allows us to make an assumption about the productivity of the idea of creating a unified organizational science.
In the late 1980s, the idea of representing the organization as a system of business processes (business system) and managing its activities as business process management began to spread. A business system is a system of relationships within an organization, its external environment, industry, and market.
Within the framework of business processes, the organization is presented as a dynamic system with its own inputs and outputs. External inputs and outputs, providing communication with the external environment, define the boundaries of the main business processes (first-order business processes). At the same time, there must be workflows within the organization that support the core business processes. They also have their own boundaries, their own entrances and exits. The content of the main and auxiliary problems solved by the organization, and the organization itself are transformed into a decision-making system.
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